O. Introduction 0.1 Formalism and functionalism 0.1.1 Formalism L Definition Formal linguistics focuses on the analysis of the formal or structural aspect of language rather than its function or use in context. It favors the de-contextualized research paradigm IL. Representative theories A. Traditional grammar a traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a languag Traditional grammars are commonly used in language education. They may be contrasted with theories of grammar in theoretical linguistics, which grew out of traditional descriptions of grammar. While grammar frameworks in contemporary linguistics often seek to explain the nature of language knowledge and ability, traditional grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used or to teach people to speak or read them The formal study of grammar, based on the work of classical Greek and Latin philologists, became popular during the Renaissance. The use of traditional grammars has gone in and out of fashion in language teaching over the ensuing centuries Traditional grammars generally classify words into parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word inflection, and the rules of syntax by which those words are combined into sentences. For example at the front seat Subject Predication Predicate Adverbial (of location) (constituency, structure syntactic functions B Saussurean linguistics Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist ferdinand de saussure. who is often described as "father of modern linguistics The three lines along which Saussure's ideas were developed: linguistics, sociology psychology 1)In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney, who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasize that language is an Institution 2)In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held that language one of the "social facts', which are ideas in the " collective mind"of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts 3)In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, who hypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called the unconscious 3. Saussures key notions 1)Signifier vs. signified Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist
1 0. Introduction 0.1 Formalism and functionalism 0.1.1 Formalism I. Definition Formal linguistics focuses on the analysis of the formal or structural aspect of language rather than its function or use in context. It favors the de-contextualized research paradigm. II. Representative theories A. Traditional grammar A traditional grammar is a framework for the description of the structure of a language. Traditional grammars are commonly used in language education. They may be contrasted with theories of grammar in theoretical linguistics, which grew out of traditional descriptions of grammar. While grammar frameworks in contemporary linguistics often seek to explain the nature of language knowledge and ability, traditional grammars seek to describe how particular languages are used, or to teach people to speak or read them. The formal study of grammar, based on the work of classical Greek and Latin philologists, became popular during the Renaissance. The use of traditional grammars has gone in and out of fashion in language teaching over the ensuing centuries. Traditional grammars generally classify words into parts of speech. They describe the patterns for word inflection, and the rules of syntax by which those words are combined into sentences. For example: (1) John sat at the front seat. Subject Predication Predicate + Adverbial (of location) n. v. prep. art. adj. n. (constituency, structure & syntactic functions) B. Saussurean Linguistics Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who is often described as “father of modern linguistics”. The three lines along which Saussure’s ideas were developed: linguistics, sociology, and psychology. 1) In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney, who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasize that language is an institution. 2) In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held that language is one of the “social facts”, which are ideas in the “collective mind” of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts. 3) In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, who hypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called the unconscious. 3. Saussure’s key notions 1) Signifier vs. signified Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist
only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language. Generally, the signifier and the signified are related arbitrarily with each other 2)Langue vS parole For Saussure, langue is"absence"in the virtual world and parole is"presence"in the world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ systems are considered unstable and variable 3)Prescriptivism VS descriptivism Linguistic prescription is typically contrasted with the alternative approach linguistic description In linguistics, prescriptivism is the practice of championing one variety or manner of speaking of a language against another. It may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative effect or are of low aesthetic value. Linguistic prescriptivism includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what a particular society perceives is correct language, or to advise on effective communication Linguistic description(observation and explanation of how language exists and is actually used)establishes conceptual categories and notes grammatical patterns in common use without establishing formal usage rules. Description may even comment about normative rules, but does so without advocating for them 4)Paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relations Paradigmatic relations the relations of choice Syntagmatic relations: the relations of combination(chain) C. American Structuralism MERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of sYNchronic LINGuiStics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century 1. Early Period: Boas and Sa i Franz boas 1)Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. He al so proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture 2)In the Introduction to his Handbook of American Indian languages, Boas discussed the amework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the ound of lar ategories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. ii)Edward Sapir 1)Sapir defines language as""a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating deas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols 2)In discussing the relations between speech and meanings, Sapir holds that the association speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but nee relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that although they are intimately related, they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product: without
2 only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language. Generally, the signifier and the signified are related arbitrarily with each other. 2) Langue vs. parole For Saussure, langue is “absence” in the virtual world and parole is “presence” in the actual world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ actual systems are considered unstable and variable. 3) Prescriptivism vs. descriptivism Linguistic prescription is typically contrasted with the alternative approach linguistic description. In linguistics, prescriptivism is the practice of championing one variety or manner of speaking of a language against another. It may imply a view that some forms are incorrect, improper, illogical, lack communicative effect, or are of low aesthetic value. Linguistic prescriptivism includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what a particular society perceives is correct language, or to advise on effective communication. Linguistic description (observation and explanation of how language exists and is actually used) establishes conceptual categories and notes grammatical patterns in common use without establishing formal usage rules. Description may even comment about normative rules, but does so without advocating for them. 4) Paradigmatic vs. syntagmatic relations Paradigmatic relations: the relations of choice Syntagmatic relations: the relations of combination (chain) C. American Structuralism AMERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. 1. Early Period: Boas and Sapir i) Franz Boas 1) Boas held that there was no ideal type or form of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse. He also proved that the structure and form of a language has nothing to do with the evolution of a race and the development of a culture. 2) In the Introduction to his Handbook of American Indian Languages, Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. ii) Edward Sapir 1) Sapir defines language as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”. 2) In discussing the relations between speech and meanings, Sapir holds that the association of speech and meaning is a relation that may be, but need not be, present. In discussing the relation between language and thought, Sapir holds that although they are intimately related, they are not to be considered the same. Language is the means, and thought is the end product: without
language, thought is impossible 3)Sapir also noticed the universal features of language and thought that without language, there is no culture 2. Bloomfield,s Theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is Leonard Bloomfield. F Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHAVIOURISM, which is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Bloomfield exemplified his process of stimulus-response theory in an interesting way(see p 320) ① Three principles a. when one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual read accordingly b. the division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language c. the distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves (2 The well-known formula s→R Here S stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands fo the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction 3 Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticized traditional grammar @ As a textbook Bloomfield's Language started American structuralism as a school 3. Post- Bloomfieldian Linguistic Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistiscs further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict mpiricism. Post- Bloomfieldian linguistics focused on direct discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus Le. through i)Zellig S. Harris D)In his book, Harris gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the dIsCovery PROCEDURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization 2) Harris formulated a set of strict descriptive procedures which took the logic of distributional relations as the basis of structural analysis ii)Charles Hockett In addition to his contribution to phonemic, morphemic and grammatical analysis and to general linguistics and its relationship with other disciplines, Hockett offered a stimulating and spirited defiance of his structuralist views while questioning many of the basic and often seemingly unchallenged assumptions underlying transformational grammar. D. Transformational generative grammar(转换生成语法 1. The origin and development of TGG Transformational-Generative Grammar(TG Grammar) was first proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky. It has seen five stages of development
3 language, thought is impossible. 3) Sapir also noticed the universal features of language and thought that without language, there is no culture. 2. Bloomfield’s Theory The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is Leonard Bloomfield.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as BEHAVIOURISM, which is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Bloomfield exemplified his process of stimulus-response theory in an interesting way (see p.320). ① Three principles: a. when one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual react accordingly. b. the division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language. c. the distance between the speaker and hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves. ② The well-known formula: S→ r … s→R Here S stands for practical stimulus, r stands for the substitute reaction of speech, s stands for the substitute stimulus, and R stands for external practical reaction. ③ Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticized traditional grammar. ④ As a textbook, Bloomfield’s Language started American structuralism as a school of thought. 3. Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistiscs further developed structuralism, characterized by a strict empiricism. Post- Bloomfieldian linguistics focused on direct observation: a grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data, i.e. through discovery procedures. i) Zellig S. Harris 1) In his book, Harris gave the fullest and most interesting expression of the DISCOVERY PROCEDURE approach to linguistics, characterized by accurate analytical procedures and high degree of formalization. 2) Harris formulated a set of strict descriptive procedures which took the logic of distributional relations as the basis of structural analysis. ii) Charles Hockett In addition to his contribution to phonemic, morphemic and grammatical analysis and to general linguistics and its relationship with other disciplines, Hockett offered a stimulating and spirited defiance of his structuralist views while questioning many of the basic and often seemingly unchallenged assumptions underlying transformational grammar. D. Transformational generative grammar（转换生成语法） 1. The origin and development of TGG Transformational-Generative Grammar (TG Grammar) was first proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky. It has seen five stages of development
O The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science 2 The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory SThe Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar 4 The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB)focuses discussion on government and binding 6 The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous thed 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 1)Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. he argues that childre en are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviourism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology 2)Chomsky's INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. 3)Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-make linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure 3. Generative grammar 1)By the notion of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means "a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences 2)Chomsky believes that"every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. A generative grammar does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings 3)Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on. They are the OBSERVATIONAL ADEQUACY level, the DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY level, and the EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY level 4)Chomsky insists on the HYPOTHESIS-DEDUCTION method and his research is called evaluation process. TG method can not only describe the surface structure of a sentence, but also interpret the internal grammatical relationships within a sentence 4. The classical theor 1)The Classical Theory is characterized by three features: emphasis on generative ability of language:@2 introduction of transformational rules; and 3 grammatical description regardless of meaning 2)Chomsky puts forward three kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational gI O A finite state grammar is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of paratus, can generate an infinite number of sentences 2 The PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR, the second model put forward by Chomsky consists solely of phrase-structure(PS)rules that formalize some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis. The phrase structure rules are showed on the page of 330) Here, take "S- NP+ VP for example. The arrow means"can be rewritten as". Phrase
4 ① The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. ② The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. ③The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. ④ The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding ⑤ The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory. 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 1) Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviourism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology. 2) Chomsky’s INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS is based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. 3) Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure. 3. Generative Grammar 1) By the notion of GENERATIVE GRAMMAR, Chomsky simply means “a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences”. 2) Chomsky believes that “every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language.” A generative grammar does not describe one language as an end, but as a means to explore the universal rules in the hope of revealing human cognitive systems and the essential nature of human beings. 3) Chomsky puts forward three different levels to evaluate grammars on. They are the OBSERVATIONAL ADEQUACY level, the DESCRIPTIVE ADEQUACY level, and the EXPLANATORY ADEQUACY level. 4) Chomsky insists on the HYPOTHESIS-DEDUCTION method and his research is called evaluation process. TG method can not only describe the surface structure of a sentence, but also interpret the internal grammatical relationships within a sentence. 4. The Classical Theory 1) The Classical Theory is characterized by three features: ① emphasis on generative ability of language; ② introduction of transformational rules; and ③ grammatical description regardless of meaning 2) Chomsky puts forward three kinds of grammar: finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar. ① A finite state grammar is the simplest type of grammar which, with a finite amount of apparatus, can generate an infinite number of sentences………………. ② The PHRASE STRUCTURE GRAMMAR, the second model put forward by Chomsky, consists solely of phrase-structure (PS) rules that formalize some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis.(The phrase structure rules are showed on the page of 330) Here, take “S → NP + VP” for example.The arrow means “can be rewritten as”. Phrase
structure rules are also called rewriting rules. The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another. These rules can be represented by bracketing and tree diagramming 3 Chomsky lists sixteen transformational rules for English. Chomsky has distinguished transformational rules into two kinds: obligatory and optional. The transformational of auxiliaries es are o bligatory, and the transformation of negation, the passive voice, etc are optional The reason for different types of sentences is that they have experienced different transformation 5. The Standard Theory Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic phonological and semantic 2 The relationships of the three components: The syntactic component can be called the base component, which consists of re-writing rules and the lexicon. It is the re-writing rules that generate the deep structure of the sentence, and the transformational rules, in turn, transform the deep structure into surface structure. The semantic component makes semantic interpretations on the deep structure, and the phonological component makes phonological interpretations on the surface structure. The Standard Theory improved a lot on the Classical Theory 6. The Extended Standard Theory 1)In the Extended Standard Theory, Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice. The first revision is called the"Extended Standard Theory"(EST). The second revision is called the "Revised Extended Standard Theory"(REST 2) In his first revision of the Standard Theory, Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure 2 Chomsky's second revision involves the whole theoretical framework, which can be illustrated by the diagram on the page of 336. The most remarkable change is that Chomsky now completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure. And, accordingly, from semantic interpretative rules is derived logical form representation. Hence, semantics was left out of the domain of synta 7. The Government and Binding(GB) Theory: Chomskys TG Grammar entered the fourth period of development with the theory of GOVERNMENT AND BINDING(GB). It consists of X-bar Theory, Government Theor Binding Theory and so on. The theory of GB directs our attention to a new orientation, i.e. the empty category (EC). Chomsky believes that through the empty category, we can further get to know about the mechanism of language 8. The minimalist Program O The Minimalist Program is characterized by several remarkable changes 2 Chomsky holds that the initial states of human languages are the same whereas the states of acquiring different languages are not. A universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states, and particular grammars are theories for studying the states of acquisition. Chomsky puts forward the strongest minimalist thesis: Linguistic mechanism is the ideal solution to the problem The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers, and the Minimalist Program and the minimalist Inquiries are just some logical steps in this process. TG Grammars aims and purposes have been
5 structure rules are also called rewriting rules. The generative process of a sentence is the process of rewriting one symbol into another. These rules can be represented by bracketing and tree diagramming. ③ Chomsky lists sixteen transformational rules for English. Chomsky has distinguished transformational rules into two kinds: obligatory and optional. The transformational of auxiliaries and particles are obligatory, and the transformation of negation, the passive voice, etc. are optional. The reason for different types of sentences is that they have experienced different transformational processes. 5. The Standard Theory ① Chomsky says that a generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic, phonological and semantic. ② The relationships of the three components: The syntactic component can be called the base component, which consists of re-writing rules and the lexicon. It is the re-writing rules that generate the deep structure of the sentence, and the transformational rules, in turn, transform the deep structure into surface structure. The semantic component makes semantic interpretations on the deep structure, and the phonological component makes phonological interpretations on the surface structure. The Standard Theory improved a lot on the Classical Theory. 6. The Extended Standard Theory 1) In the Extended Standard Theory, Chomsky revised his Standard Theory twice. The first revision is called the “Extended Standard Theory” (EST). The second revision is called the “Revised Extended Standard Theory” (REST). 2) ① In his first revision of the Standard Theory, Chomsky moved part of semantic interpretation to the surface structure. ② Chomsky’s second revision involves the whole theoretical framework, which can be illustrated by the diagram on the page of 336.The most remarkable change is that Chomsky now completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure. And, accordingly, from semantic interpretative rules is derived logical form representation. Hence, semantics was left out of the domain of syntax. 7. The Government and Binding (GB) Theory: Chomsky’s TG Grammar entered the fourth period of development with the theory of GOVERNMENT AND BINDING (GB). It consists of X-bar Theory, Government Theory, Binding Theory and so on.The theory of GB directs our attention to a new orientation, i.e. the empty category (EC). Chomsky believes that through the empty category, we can further get to know about the mechanism of language. 8. The Minimalist Program ① The Minimalist Program is characterized by several remarkable changes. ② Chomsky holds that the initial states of human languages are the same whereas the states of acquiring different languages are not. A universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states, and particular grammars are theories for studying the states of acquisition. Chomsky puts forward the strongest minimalist thesis: Linguistic mechanism is the ideal solution to the problem of legibility conditions. The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers, and the Minimalist Program and the Minimalist Inquiries are just some logical steps in this process. TG Grammar’s aims and purposes have been