同义关系 Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 如何区分同义词? Difference in denotation2 Difference application What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2)A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its esponding opposite 上下义关系: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-orde ordinates ab the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 词义变化的种类 There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowIng, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason)and intra-linguistic factors( shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept. Compare the following:词义的缩小 Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense:词义的升华 Elevation s a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/ or appreciative sense;词义的降格 Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,;词义的转移 Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw the like, but the product has retained the same name There is associated transfer
同义关系 Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 词义变化的种类 There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).词义的扩大 Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小 Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华 Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格 Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移 Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer
There are other kinds of transfer, such as. concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation 语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境:词汇语境和语法语境。 There are two types of contexts context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context) Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexica context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs 语境的作用: Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows: 1) definition 2)explanation 3) example 4)synonymy 5) antonymy 6) hyponymy 7)relevant details 8)word structure 英语习语的特点 The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability 英语习语的分类 According to the criterion of their grammatical functions,we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions. 英语习语的使用 The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features,and variations of idioms 英语习语的修辞色彩 The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation( alliteration头韵法 and rhyme叠韵), lexical manipulation ( reiteration复用, repetition重复 and juxtaposition反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile明喻, metaphor暗喻, metonymy转喻, synecdoche借代, personification拟人, euphemism委婉) 英语习语的变异形式 In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismember are involved in the changes in idioms consti tuents Associative meaning: 1)associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and determinated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion geographical region, class background, education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative
There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation. 语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. 语境的作用：Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure 英语习语的特点 The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability. 英语习语的分类 According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary expressions. 英语习语的使用 The use of idioms involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of idioms. 英语习语的修辞色彩 The rhetorical features of idioms are represented with phonetic manipulation ( alliteration 头 韵 法 and rhyme 叠 韵 ) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration 复用, repetition 重复 and juxtaposition 反义词叠用), figures of speech ( simile 明喻, metaphor 暗喻, metonymy 转喻, synecdoche 借代, personification 拟人, euphemism 委婉) 英 语 习 语 的 变 异 形 式 In the variations, addition, deletion, replacement, position-shifting and dismembering are involved in the changes in idioms constituents . Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative
Metonymy和 Synecdoche,修饰有何区别? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa 词典的种类 There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts:(1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2)ling d encyclopedic dictionaries, ( 3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4)specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language. a bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved. A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary. An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword. An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150, 000. A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50, 000 entries or fewer 七、分析综合49-50*9 1、对句子进行理论分析,并改进: ambiguous-一原因 cause可以如何理解?——如何 改进? Improve 2、对单词进行分析: re-collect-ion-—归属 free morpheme, bound morpheme-—解释 3、构词法进行分析: word formation:例如:VP= every important person属于 anonym 4、分析 idiom:属于什么短语一一作用 注:重点有1、 idioms相关知识 2、一些名词解释,如术语等 3、 types of meaning; 二.串讲内容 Introduction部分 Lexicology这门课算哪一种学科的分支 lexicology is a branch of linguistics Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1) Morphology2) Semantics3) Stylistics4) Etymology 5)Le
Metonymy 和 Synecdoche , 修 饰 有 何区 别 ? Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa. 词典的种类 There are four types of dictionaries with their features mentioned in this parts: (1) monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries, (4) specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary is a dictionary which is written in one language. A bilingual dictionary is one in which two languages are involved. A linguistic dictionary is a dictionary which aims at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. An encyclopedic dictionary is one in which encyclopedic information is provided along with the general information as in a linguistic dictionary . An encyclopedia is a dictionary which only provide encyclopedic information concerning each headword. An unabridged dictionary is an unshortened dictionary with at least 200,000 headwords that can supply a great quantity of basic, information about a word. A desk dictionary is a medium-sized dictionary containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. A pocket dictionary is a dictionary which has about 50,000 entries or fewer. 七、分析综合 49-50*9 1、对句子进行理论分析，并改进：ambiguous——原因 cause——可以如何理解？——如何 改进？improve 2、对单词进行分析：re-collect-ion——归属 free morpheme, bound morpheme——解释 3、构词法进行分析：word formation: 例如：VIP=very important person 属于 aronym 4、分析 idiom:属于什么短语——作用 注：重点有 1、idioms 相关知识； 2、一些名词解释，如术语等； 3、types of meaning； 二. 串讲内容 Introduction 部分： Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支 exicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology 和那些重要的学科建立了联系:1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究 lexicology的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach:历时语言学2) Synchronic approach:共时语言学e.g.wife纵观历时语言学的方法论, woman词义的变化算是词义 变化的哪一种模式? Woman的词义的变化算 Narrowing or specialization 第一章 What is word?词具有哪些特点?词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) a word is a minimal free form of a language; 2) A sound unity or a given sound; 3)a unit of meaning: 4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释 词的分类( classification of a word)词根据发音可以分为哪两种词?或者说词根据拼 写可以分为哪两类词? 1) simple words2) complex words单音节词例子:e.g. Man and fine are simple多音 节词例子:e.g. Management, misfortune, blackman Management可以次划分为 manage和 ment misfortune可以次划分为mis-和 fortuneblackmail次划分为 black和mail What is the relationship between sound and meaning? 1)There is 'no logica relationship between the sound and actual thing. e. g. dog. cat2) The relationship between them is conventional. 3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds. What is relationship between sound and form? 1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language. 2)This is fairly true of English ir earliest stage i.e. old English)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form? 1)The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 2)Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart. 3)A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the english vocabulary 要记住以上四句话中的关键词:1) influenced by romans2) Pronunciation changed3) best)borr
研究 lexicology 的两大方法:1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学 2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学 e.g. wife 纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义 变化的哪一种模式？ Woman 的词义的变化算 Narrowing or specialization 第一章 What is word ?词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释 词的分类（classification of a word）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼 写可以分为哪两类词？ 1) simple words 2) complex words 单音节词例子：e.g. Man and fine are simple 多音 节词例子：e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement 可以次划分为 manage 和 –ment misfortune 可以次划分为 mis- 和 fortuneblackmail 次划分为 black 和 mail What is the relationship between sound and meaning?1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat2)The relationship between them is conventional.3) In different languages the same concept can be represented bydifferent sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oralform, such as English language.2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn farapart.3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 要记住以上四句话中的关键词：1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些?e.g. stimulus (L), fiesta(Sp), eureka(Gr), kimono(Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘ sound orm 不一致。 What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person Classification of Words(本课的一个重点,年年考试都考) What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria: 1) By use of frequency 2)By notion 3)By origin By use of frequency可划分为:1) The basic word stock2) Nonbasic word vocabulary By notion可划分为:1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also know as notional words.(Content words AHpR)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. (Functional words A]W)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart Robertson, et 1(1957),*(年年考试必考) the nine functional words, namely,and it, of, the, to, will, you What are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5)C1 Locability要把握住‘ All national aracter’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的,最普通 稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点,请你举例说明?e.g.man, woman,fire, water…e. machine, video, telephone -e.g. bow, chariot, knight Stability is relative, not absolute 根据词的 use frequency划分出的基本词之外,还有一类词叫作 None basic vocabulary 非基本词有几大特点?或者是几大分类?1) Termino logy e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e. g. Bottom line Jargon )3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuaders)Dialectal words e.g. station( AusE ranch bluid( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (wil1)7) Neologisms e. g. email Neologisms )beaver E slang表达方式,但是二者之间存在着 Stylistic difference Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words Answer Content words What is native words? Answer: (1)By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. (2) Native words are words brought to britain in the fifth century by the German tribes the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3)Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number amounting to roughly 50, 000 to 60, 000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language
你能不 能举出外来语对英 语发音,拼写造 成不一致的例子 有哪些 ？e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。 What is vocabulary? Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. Classification of Words (本课的一个重点, 年年考试都考) What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics? Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin By use of frequency 可划分为：1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary By notion 可划分为：1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. (Functional words 的别称)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* (年年考试必考) the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you What are the characteristics of basic word stock?1) All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability 要 把 握 住 ‘All national character’词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通 稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？e.g. man, woman , fire, water …e.g. machine, video, telephone …e.g. bow, chariot , knight Stability is relative, not absolute. 根据词的 use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作 None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )beaver 是 girl 的 slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着 Stylistic difference Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content words or functional words ? Answer : Content words What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language