Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought Formally Named We have broken the global concept of critical thinking down into 35 aspects or instructional strategies. These strategies are linked to the following remodeled lessons plans K-3: Remodeled Lesson plans 4-6: Remodeled Lesson plans 6-9: Remodeled Lesson plans High School: Remodeled Lesson Plans A Affective Strategies S-1 thinking independently S-2 developing insight into egocentricity or sociocentricity S-3 exercising fairmindedness S-4 exploring thoughts underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts S-5 developing intellectual humility and suspending judgment S-6 developing intellectual courage S-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity S-8 developing intellectual perseverance S-9 developing confidence in reason B Cognitive Strategies-Macro-Abilities S-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications S-11 comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts S-12 developing one's perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories S-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs S-14 clarifying and analyzing the meanings of words or phrases S-15 developing criteria for evaluation: clarifying values and standards S-16 evaluating the credibility of sources of information S-17 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing root or significant questions S-18 analyzing or evaluating arguments, interpretations, beliefs, or theories S-19 generating or assessing solutions S-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies S-21 reading critically: clarifying or critiquing texts S-22 listening critically: the art of silent dialogue S-23 making interdisciplinary connections S-24 practicing Socratic discussion: clarifying and questioning beliefs, theories, or S-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives, interpretations, or theories S-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating perspectives, interpretations, or theories C Cognitive Strategies-Micro-skills S-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice S-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary S-29 noting significant similarities and differences
Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought Formally Named We have broken the global concept of critical thinking down into 35 aspects or instructional strategies. These strategies are linked to the following remodeled lessons plans: K-3: Remodeled Lesson Plans 4-6: Remodeled Lesson Plans 6-9: Remodeled Lesson Plans High School: Remodeled Lesson Plans A. Affective Strategies • S-1 thinking independently • S-2 developing insight into egocentricity or sociocentricity • S-3 exercising fairmindedness • S-4 exploring thoughts underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts • S-5 developing intellectual humility and suspending judgment • S-6 developing intellectual courage • S-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity • S-8 developing intellectual perseverance • S-9 developing confidence in reason B. Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities • S-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications • S-11 comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts • S-12 developing one’s perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories • S-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs • S-14 clarifying and analyzing the meanings of words or phrases • S-15 developing criteria for evaluation: clarifying values and standards • S-16 evaluating the credibility of sources of information • S-17 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing root or significant questions • S-18 analyzing or evaluating arguments, interpretations, beliefs, or theories • S-19 generating or assessing solutions • S-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies • S-21 reading critically: clarifying or critiquing texts • S-22 listening critically: the art of silent dialogue • S-23 making interdisciplinary connections • S-24 practicing Socratic discussion: clarifying and questioning beliefs, theories, or perspectives • S-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives, interpretations, or theories • S-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating perspectives, interpretations, or theories C. Cognitive Strategies - Micro-Skills • S-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice • S-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary • S-29 noting significant similarities and differences
S-30 examining or evaluating assumptio S-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts S-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations S-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts S-34 recognizing contradictions S-35 exploring implications and consequences S-1 Thinking Independently Principle: Critical thinking is independent thinking thinking for oneself. Many of our beliefs are acquired at an early age, when we have a strong tendency to form beliefs for irrational reasons(because we want to believe, because we are praised or rewarded for believing). Critical thinkers use critical skills and insights to reveal and reject beliefs that are irrational In forming new beliefs, critical thinkers do not passively accept the beliefs of others; rather, they try to figure things out for themselves, reject unjustified authorities, and recognize the contributions of genuine authorities. They thoughtfully form principles of thought and action; they do not mindlessly accept those presented to them. nor are they unduly influenced by the language of another. If they find that a set of categories or distinctions is more appropriate than that used by another, they will use it. Recognizing that categories serve human purposes, they use those categories which best serve their purpose at the time. They are not limited by accepted ways of doing things. they evaluate both goals and how to achieve them they do not accept as true, or reject as false, beliefs they do not understand. They are not easily Independent thinkers strive to incorporate all known relevant knowledge and insight into their thought and behavior. They strive to detemine for themselves when infomation is relevant, when to apply a concept or when to make use of a skill. They are self-monitoring they catch their own mistakes; they don t need to be told what to do every step of the way S-2 Developing Insight Into Egocentricity or Sociocentricity Principle: Egocentricity means confusing what we see and think with reality. When under the influence of egocentricity, we think that the way we see things is exactly the way things are. Egocentricity manifests itself as an inability or unwillingness to consider others' points of view, a refusal to accept ideas or facts which would prevent us from getting what we want(or think we want In its extreme forms, it is characterized by a need to be right about everything a lack of interest in consistency and clarity, an all or nothing attitude (l am 100% right; you are 100%wrong ") and a lack of self-consciousness of one's own thought processes. The egocentric individual is more concerned with the appearance of truth, fairness, and faimindedness, than with actually being correct, fair, or fairminded Egocentricity is the opposite of critical thought. It is common in adults as well as in children As people are socialized, egocentricity partly evolves into sociocentricity Egocentric tendencies extend to their groups. The individual goes from "l am right! "to "We are right!" To put this another way, people find that they can often best satisfy their egocentric desires through a group Group think"results when people egocentrically attach themselves to a group. One can see this in both children and adults: My daddy is better than your daddy! My school(religion, country, race, etc. )is better than yours. Uncritical thinkers often confuse loyalty with always supporting and agreeing, even when the other person or the group is wrong If egocentricity and sociocentricity are the disease, self-awareness is the cure. We need to become aware of our own tendency to confuse our view with"The Truth People can often recognize when
• S-30 examining or evaluating assumptions • S-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts • S-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations • S-33 giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts • S-34 recognizing contradictions • S-35 exploring implications and consequences S-1 Thinking Independently Principle: Critical thinking is independent thinking, thinking for oneself. Many of our beliefs are acquired at an early age, when we have a strong tendency to form beliefs for irrational reasons (because we want to believe, because we are praised or rewarded for believing). Critical thinkers use critical skills and insights to reveal and reject beliefs that are irrational. In forming new beliefs, critical thinkers do not passively accept the beliefs of others; rather, they try to figure things out for themselves, reject unjustified authorities, and recognize the contributions of genuine authorities. They thoughtfully form principles of thought and action; they do not mindlessly accept those presented to them. Nor are they unduly influenced by the language of another. If they find that a set of categories or distinctions is more appropriate than that used by another, they will use it. Recognizing that categories serve human purposes, they use those categories which best serve their purpose at the time. They are not limited by accepted ways of doing things. They evaluate both goals and how to achieve them. They do not accept as true, or reject as false, beliefs they do not understand. They are not easily manipulated. Independent thinkers strive to incorporate all known relevant knowledge and insight into their thought and behavior. They strive to determine for themselves when information is relevant, when to apply a concept, or when to make use of a skill. They are self-monitoring: they catch their own mistakes; they don't need to be told what to do every step of the way. S-2 Developing Insight Into Egocentricity or Sociocentricity Principle: Egocentricity means confusing what we see and think with reality. When under the influence of egocentricity, we think that the way we see things is exactly the way things are. Egocentricity manifests itself as an inability or unwillingness to consider others' points of view, a refusal to accept ideas or facts which would prevent us from getting what we want (or think we want). In its extreme forms, it is characterized by a need to be right about everything, a lack of interest in consistency and clarity, an all or nothing attitude ("I am 100% right; you are 100% wrong."), and a lack of self-consciousness of one's own thought processes. The egocentric individual is more concerned with the appearance of truth, fairness, and fairmindedness, than with actually being correct, fair, or fairminded. Egocentricity is the opposite of critical thought. It is common in adults as well as in children. As people are socialized, egocentricity partly evolves into sociocentricity. Egocentric tendencies extend to their groups. The individual goes from "I am right!" to "We are right!" To put this another way, people find that they can often best satisfy their egocentric desires through a group. "Group think" results when people egocentrically attach themselves to a group. One can see this in both children and adults: My daddy is better than your daddy! My school (religion, country, race, etc.) is better than yours. Uncritical thinkers often confuse loyalty with always supporting and agreeing, even when the other person or the group is wrong. If egocentricity and sociocentricity are the disease, self-awareness is the cure. We need to become aware of our own tendency to confuse our view with "The Truth". People can often recognize when
omeone else is egocentric. Most of us can identify the sociocentricity of members of opposi Yet when we ourselves are thinking egocentrically or sociocentrically, it seems right to us(at least at the Our belief in our own rightness is easier to maintain because we ignore the faults in our thinking. We automatically hide our egocentricity from ourselves. We fail to notice when our behavior contradicts our self-image. We base our reasoning on false assumptions we are unaware of making. We fail to make elevant distinctions(of which we are otherwise aware and able to make) when making them prevents us from getting whatwe want We deny or conveniently forget facts that do not support our conclusions We often misunderstand or distort what others say The solution, then, is to reflect on our reasoning and behavior, to make our beliefs explicit, critique them, and, when they are false, stop making them; to apply the same concepts in the same ways to ourselves and others; to consider every relevant fact, and to make our conclusions consistent with the evidence and to listen carefully and openmindedly to others We can change egocentric tendencies when we see them for what they are: irrational and unjust. The development of children s awareness of their egocentric and sociocentricpatterns of thought is a crucial part of education in critical thinking. This development will be modest at first but can grow considerably over time S-3 Exercising Fairmindedness Principle: To think critically, we must be able to consider the strengths and weaknesses of opposing points of view, to imaginatively put ourselves in the place of others in order to genuinely understand them to overcome our egocentric tendency to identify truth with our immediate perceptions orlong-standing his trait is linked to the ability to accurately reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other than our own. This trait also requires the willingness to remember occasions when we were wrong in the past despite an intense conviction that we were right, as well as the ability to imagine our being similarly deceived in a case at hand. Critical thinkers realize the unfairness of judging unfamiliar ideas until they fully understand them The world consists of many societies and peoples with m any different points of view and ways of thinking To develop as reasonable persons, we need to enter into and think within the frameworks and ideas of different peoples and societies We cannot truly understand the world if we think about it only from one viewpoint, as Americans, as Italians, or as Soviets. Furthermore, critical thinkers recognize that their behavior affects others, and so consider their behavior from the perspective of those others. S-4 Exploring Thoughts Underlying Feelings and Feelings Underlying Thoughts Principle: Although it is common to separate thought and feeling as though they were independent, opposing forces in the human mind, the truth is that virtually all human feelings are based on some level of thought and virtually all thought generative of some level of feeling. To think with self-understanding and insight, we must come to terms with the intimate connections between thought and feeling, reasor and emotion Critical thinkers realize that their feelings are their response(but not the only possible, or even necessanly the most reasonable response)to a situation. They know that their feelings would be different if they had a different understanding or interpretation of the situation They recognize that thoughts and feelings, far from being different kinds of "things", are two aspects of their responses. Uncritical thinkers see little or no relationship between their feelings and their thoughts
someone else is egocentric. Most of us can identify the sociocentricity of members of opposing groups. Yet when we ourselves are thinking egocentrically or sociocentrically, it seems right to us (at least at the time). Our belief in our own rightness is easier to maintain because we ignore the faults in our thinking. We automatically hide our egocentricity from ourselves. We fail to notice when our behavior contradicts our self-image. We base our reasoning on false assumptions we are unaware of making. We fail to make relevant distinctions (of which we are otherwise aware and able to make) when making them prevents us from getting what we want. We deny or conveniently "forget" facts that do not support our conclusions. We often misunderstand or distort what others say. The solution, then, is to reflect on our reasoning and behavior; to make our beliefs explicit, critique them, and, when they are false, stop making them; to apply the same concepts in the same ways to ourselves and others; to consider every relevant fact, and to make our conclusions consistent with the evidence; and to listen carefully and openmindedly to others. We can change egocentric tendencies when we see them for what they are: irrational and unjust. The development of children's awareness of their egocentric and sociocentric patterns of thought is a crucial part of education in critical thinking. This development will be modest at first but can grow considerably over time. S-3 Exercising Fairmindedness Principle: To think critically, we must be able to consider the strengths and weaknesses of opposing points of view; to imaginatively put ourselves in the place of others in order to genuinely understand them; to overcome our egocentric tendency to identify truth with our immediate perceptions or long -standing thought or belief. This trait is linked to the ability to accurately reconstruct the viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas other than our own. This trait also requires the willingness to remember occasions when we were wrong in the past despite an intense conviction that we were right, as well as the ability to imagine our being similarly deceived in a case at hand. Critical thinkers realize the unfairness of judging unfamiliar ideas until they fully understand them. The world consists of many societies and peoples with m any different points of view and ways of thinking. To develop as reasonable persons, we need to enter into and think within the frameworks and ideas of different peoples and societies. We cannot truly understand the world if we think about it only from one viewpoint, as Americans, as Italians, or as Soviets. Furthermore, critical thinkers recognize that their behavior affects others, and so consider their behavior from the perspective of those others. S-4 Exploring Thoughts Underlying Feelings and Feelings Underlying Thoughts Principle: Although it is common to separate thought and feeling as though they were independent, opposing forces in the human mind, the truth is that virtually all human feelings are based on some level of thought and virtually all thought generative of some level of feeling. To think with self-understanding and insight, we must come to terms with the intimate connections between thought and feeling, reason and emotion. Critical thinkers realize that their feelings are their response (but not the only possible, or even necessarily the most reasonable response) to a situation. They know that their feelings would be different if they had a different understanding or interpretation of the situation. They recognize that thoughts and feelings, far from being different kinds of "things", are two aspects of their responses. Uncritical thinkers see little or no relationship between their feelings and their thoughts
and so escape responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Their own feelings often seem unintelligible to them When we feel sad or depressed, it is often because we are interpreting our situation in an overly negative or to consider positive We can better understand our feelings by asking ourselves, How have I come to feel this way How am I looking at the situation? To what condusion have I come? What is my evidence? What assumptions am I aking? What inferences am I making? Are they sound inferences Do my conclusions make sense? Are there other ways to interpret this situation? We can learn to seek patterns in our assumptions, and so begin to see the unity behind our separate emotions. Understanding ourselves is the first step toward self-control and self- improvement. This self-understanding requires thatwe understand our feelings and emotions in relation to our thoughts, ideas, and interpretations of the world S-5 Developing Inte llectual Humility and Suspending Judgment Principle: Critical thinkers recognize the limits of their knowledge. They are sensitive to circumstances in which their native egocentricity is likely to function self-deceptively; they are sensitive to bias, prejudice and limitations of their views. Intellectual humility is based on the recognition that one should not claim more than one actually knows. It does not imply spinelessness or submissiveness It implies the lack of intellectual pretentiousness, arrogance, or conceit. It implies insight into the foundations of one's beliefs: knowing what evidence one has, how one has come to believe, what further evidence one might look for or examine. Thus, critical thinkers distinguish what they know from what they dont know. They are not afraid of saying"I don' t know when they are not in a position to be sure They can make this distinction because they habitually ask themselves, How could one know whether or not this is true? To say In this case I must suspend judgment until l find out x and y", does not make them anxious or uncomfortable. They are willing to rethink conclusions in the light of new knowledge They qualify their claims appropriately In exposing children to concepts within a field of knowledge, we can help them see how all concepts depend on other, more basic concepts and how each field is based on fundamental assumptions which need to be examined, understood, and justified The class should often explore the connections between specific details and basic concepts or principles. We can help children discover experiences in their lives which help support or justify what a text says We should always be willing to entertain student doubts about what a text says Judgment S-6 Developing Intellectual Courage Principle: To think independently and fairly, one must feel the need to face and fairly deal with unpopular ideas, beliefs, or viewpoints. The courage to do so arises when we see that ideas considered dangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justified (in whole or in part) and that condusions or beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false or misleading To determine for ourselves which is which, we must not passively and uncritically accept whatwe have learned". We need courage to admit the truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and the distortion or falsity in some ideas strongly held in our social group. It will take courage to be true to or own thinking, for honestly questioning our deeply held beliefs can be difficult and sometimes frightening and the penalties for non-conformity are often severe Judgment S-7 Developing Intellectual Good Faith or Integrity Principle: Critical thinkers recognize the need to be true to their own thought, to be consistent in the intellectual standards they apply, to hold themselves to the same rigorous standards of evidence and
and so escape responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Their own feelings often seem unintelligible to them. When we feel sad or depressed, it is often because we are interpreting our situation in an overly negative or pessimistic light. We may be forgetting to consider positive aspects of our lives. We can better understand our feelings by asking ourselves, "How have I come to feel this way? How am I looking at the situation? To what conclusion have I come? What is my evidence? What assumptions am I making? What inferences am I making? Are they sound inferences? Do my conclusions make sense? Are there other ways to interpret this situation?" We can learn to seek patterns in our assumptions, and so begin to see the unity behind our separate emotions. Understanding ourselves is the first step toward self-control and self-improvement. This self-understanding requires that we understand our feelings and emotions in relation to our thoughts, ideas, and interpretations of the world. S-5 Developing Intellectual Humility and Suspending Judgment Principle: Critical thinkers recognize the limits of their knowledge. They are sensitive to circumstances in which their native egocentricity is likely to function self-deceptively; they are sensitive to bias, prejudice, and limitations of their views. Intellectual humility is based on the recognition that one should not claim more than one actually knows. It does not imply spinelessness or submissiveness. It implies the lack of intellectual pretentiousness, arrogance, or conceit. It implies insight into the foundations of one's beliefs: knowing what evidence one has, how one has come to believe, what further evidence one might look for or examine. Thus, critical thinkers distinguish what they know from what they don't know. They are not afraid of saying "I don't know" when they are not in a position to be sure. They can make this distinction because they habitually ask themselves, "How could one know whether or not this is true?" To say "In this case I must suspend judgment until I find out x and y", does not make them anxious or uncomfortable. They are willing to rethink conclusions in the light of new knowledge. They qualify their claims appropriately. In exposing children to concepts within a field of knowledge, we can help them see how all concepts depend on other, more basic concepts and how each field is based on fundamental assumptions which need to be examined, understood, and justified. The class should often explore the connections between specific details and basic concepts or principles. We can help children discover experiences in their own lives which help support or justify what a text says. We should always be willing to entertain student doubts about what a text says. Judgment S-6 Developing Intellectual Courage Principle: To think independently and fairly, one must feel the need to face and fairly deal with unpopular ideas, beliefs, or viewpoints. The courage to do so arises when we see that ideas considered dangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justified (in whole or in part) and that conclusions or beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false or misleading. To determine for ourselves which is which, we must not passively and uncritically accept what we have "learned". We need courage to admit the truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and the distortion or falsity in some ideas strongly held in our social group. It will take courage to be true to our own thinking, for honestly questioning our deeply held beliefs can be difficult and sometimes frightening, and the penalties for non-conformity are often severe. Judgment S-7 Developing Intellectual Good Faith or Integrity Principle: Critical thinkers recognize the need to be true to their own thought, to be consistent in the intellectual standards they apply, to hold themselves to the same rigorous standards of evidence and
proof to which they hold others, to practice what they advocate for others, and to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in their own thought and action. They believe most strongly what has been justified by their own thought and analyzed experience They have a commitment to bringing the self they are and the self they want to be together. People in general are often inconsistent in their application of standards once their ego is involved positively or negatively. For instance, when people like us, we tend to over-estimate their positive characteristics when they dislike us, we tend to underrate them S-8 Developing Intellectual Perseverance Principle: Becoming a more critical thinker is not easy. It takes time and effort. Critical thinking reflective and recursive; that is, we often think back to previous problems to re-consider or re-analyze them. Critical thinkers are willing to pursue intellectual insights and truths in spite of difficulties, obstacles and frustrations They recognize the need to struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over time in order to achieve deeper understanding and insight. They recognize that significant change requires patience and hard work. Important issues often require extended thought, research, struggle. Considering a new view takes time. Yet people are often impatient to "get on with it" when they most need to slow down and think carefully People rarely define issues or problems clearly concepts are often left vague; related issues are not sorted out, etc. When people don t understand a problem or situation, their reactions and solutions often compound the original problem Children need to gain insight into the need for intellectual perseverance S-9 Developing Confidence in Reason Principle: The rational person recognizes the power of reason and the value of disciplining thinking accordance with rational standards. virtually all of the progress that has been made in science and human knowledge testifies to this power, and so to the reasonability of having confidence in reason To develop this faith in reason is to come to see that ultimately one,s own higher interests and those of humankind atlarge will best be served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging people to come to their own conclusions through a process of developing their own rational faculties It is to reject force and trickery as standard ways of changing anothers mind. It is to believe that, with proper encouragement and cultivation, people can develop the ability to think for themselves, to form reasonable points of view, draw reasonable conclusions, think clearly and logically, persuade each other by reason and, ultimately, become reasonable persons, despite the deep-seated obstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it his confidence is essential to building a democracy in which people come to genuine rule, rather than being manipulated by the mass media, special interests, or by the inner prejudices, fears, an irrationalities that so easily and commonly dominate human minds You should note that the act of faith we are recommending is not blind faith but should be tested in everyday experiences and academic work. In other words, we should have confidence in reason because reason works. Confidence in reason does not deny the reality of intuition; rather, it provides a way of distinguishing intuition from prejudice. When we know the source of our thinking and keep our minds open to new reason and evidence, we will be more likely to correct our prejudiced thought. At the heart of this principle of faith in reason is the desire to make sense of the world and the expectation that sense can be made. Texts often don t make sense to children, sometimes because what they say doesnt make sense, more often because children aren t given time to make sense out of what they are
proof to which they hold others, to practice what they advocate for others, and to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in their own thought and action. They believe most strongly what has been justified by their own thought and analyzed experience. They have a commitment to bringing the self they are and the self they want to be together. People in general are often inconsistent in their application of standards once their ego is involved positively or negatively. For instance, when people like us, we tend to over-estimate their positive characteristics; when they dislike us, we tend to underrate them S-8 Developing Intellectual Perseverance Principle: Becoming a more critical thinker is not easy. It takes time and effort. Critical thinking is reflective and recursive; that is, we often think back to previous problems to re-consider or re-analyze them. Critical thinkers are willing to pursue intellectual insights and truths in spite of difficulties, obstacles, and frustrations. They recognize the need to struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over time in order to achieve deeper understanding and insight. They recognize that significant change requires patience and hard work. Important issues often require extended thought, research, struggle. Considering a new view takes time. Yet people are often impatient to "get on with it" when they most need to slow down and think carefully. People rarely define issues or problems clearly; concepts are often left vague; related issues are not sorted out, etc. When people don't understand a problem or situation, their reactions and solutions often compound the original problem. Children need to gain insight into the need for intellectual perseverance. S-9 Developing Confidence in Reason Principle: The rational person recognizes the power of reason and the value of disciplining thinking in accordance with rational standards. Virtually all of the progress that has been made in science and human knowledge testifies to this power, and so to the reasonability of having confidence in reason. To develop this faith in reason is to come to see that ultimately one's own higher interests and those of humankind at large will best be served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging people to come to their own conclusions through a process of developing their own rational faculties. It is to reject force and trickery as standard ways of changing another's mind. It is to believe that, with proper encouragement and cultivation, people can develop the ability to think for themselves, to form reasonable points of view, draw reasonable conclusions, think clearly and logically, persuade each other by reason and, ultimately, become reasonable persons, despite the deep-seated obstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it. This confidence is essential to building a democracy in which people come to genuine rule, rather than being manipulated by the mass media, special interests, or by the inner prejudices, fears, and irrationalities that so easily and commonly dominate human minds. You should note that the act of faith we are recommending is not blind faith, but should be tested in everyday experiences and academic work. In other words, we should have confidence in reason because reason works. Confidence in reason does not deny the reality of intuition; rather, it provides a way of distinguishing intuition from prejudice. When we know the source of our thinking and keep our minds open to new reason and evidence, we will be more likely to correct our prejudiced thought. At the heart of this principle of faith in reason is the desire to make sense of the world and the expectation that sense can be made. Texts often don't make sense to children, sometimes because what they say doesn't make sense, more often because children aren't given time to make sense out of what they are told