countryside,the peasants begin to prohibit or restrict the things they dislike.Gaming,gambling and opium-smoking are the three things that are most strictly forbidden. Gaming.Where the peasant association is powerful,mahjong,dominoes and card games are completely banned. The peasant association in the 14th District of Hsianghsiang burned two basketfuls of mahjong sets. If you go to the countryside,you will find none of these games played;anyone who violates the ban is promptly and strictly punished. Gambling.Former hardened gamblers are now themselves suppressing gambling;this abuse,too, has been swept away in places where the peasant association is powerful. Opium-smoking.The prohibition is extremely strict.When the peasant association orders the surrender of opium pipes,no one dares to raise the least objection.In Liling County one of the evil gentry who did not surrender his pipes was arrested and paraded through the villages. The peasants'campaign to "disarm the opium-smokers'!is no less impressive than the disarming of the troops of Wu Pei-fu and Sun Chuan-fang [27]by the Northern Expeditionary Army.Quite a number of venerable fathers of officers in the revolutionary army,old men who were opium-addicts and inseparable from their pipes,have been disarmed by the"emperors"(as the peasants are called derisively by the evil gentry).The "emperors"have banned not only the growing and smoking of opium,but also trafficking in it.A great deal of the opium transported from Kweichow to Kiangsi via the counties of Paoching,Hsianghsiang,Yuhsien and Liling has been intercepted on the way and burned.This has affected government revenues.As a result,out of consideration for the army's need for funds in the Northern Expedition,the provincial peasant association ordered the associations at the lower levels "temporarily to postpone the ban on opium traffic".This,however, has upset and displeased the peasants There are many other things besides these three which the peasants have prohibited or restricted, the following being some examples: The flower drum.Vulgar performances are forbidden in many places. Sedan-chairsIn many counties,especially Hsianghsiang,there have been cases of smashing sedan- chairs.The peasants,detesting the people who use this conveyance,are always ready to smash the chairs,but the peasant associations forbid them to do so.Association officials tell the peasants,"If you smash the chairs,you only save the rich money and lose the carriers their jobs.Will that not hurt our own people?"Seeing the point,the peasants have worked out a new tactic-considerably to increase the fares charged by the chair carriers so as to penalize the rich. Distilling and sugar-making.The use of grain for distilling spirits and making sugar is everywhere prohibited,and the distillers and sugar-refiners are constantly complaining.Distilling is not banned in Futienpu,Hengshan County,but prices are fixed very low,and the wine and spirits dealers
countryside, the peasants begin to prohibit or restrict the things they dislike. Gaming, gambling and opium-smoking are the three things that are most strictly forbidden. Gaming.Where the peasant association is powerful, mahjong, dominoes and card games are completely banned. The peasant association in the 14th District of Hsianghsiang burned two basketfuls of mahjong sets. If you go to the countryside, you will find none of these games played; anyone who violates the ban is promptly and strictly punished. Gambling.Former hardened gamblers are now themselves suppressing gambling; this abuse, too, has been swept away in places where the peasant association is powerful. Opium-smoking.The prohibition is extremely strict. When the peasant association orders the surrender of opium pipes, no one dares to raise the least objection. In Liling County one of the evil gentry who did not surrender his pipes was arrested and paraded through the villages. The peasants' campaign to "disarm the opium-smokers'! is no less impressive than the disarming of the troops of Wu Pei-fu and Sun Chuan-fang [27] by the Northern Expeditionary Army. Quite a number of venerable fathers of officers in the revolutionary army, old men who were opium-addicts and inseparable from their pipes, have been disarmed by the "emperors" (as the peasants are called derisively by the evil gentry). The "emperors" have banned not only the growing and smoking of opium, but also trafficking in it. A great deal of the opium transported from Kweichow to Kiangsi via the counties of Paoching, Hsianghsiang, Yuhsien and Liling has been intercepted on the way and burned. This has affected government revenues. As a result, out of consideration for the army's need for funds in the Northern Expedition, the provincial peasant association ordered the associations at the lower levels "temporarily to postpone the ban on opium traffic". This, however, has upset and displeased the peasants. There are many other things besides these three which the peasants have prohibited or restricted, the following being some examples: The flower drum.Vulgar performances are forbidden in many places. Sedan-chairsIn many counties, especially Hsianghsiang, there have been cases of smashing sedanchairs. The peasants, detesting the people who use this conveyance, are always ready to smash the chairs, but the peasant associations forbid them to do so. Association officials tell the peasants, "If you smash the chairs, you only save the rich money and lose the carriers their jobs. Will that not hurt our own people?" Seeing the point, the peasants have worked out a new tactic-considerably to increase the fares charged by the chair carriers so as to penalize the rich. Distilling and sugar-making.The use of grain for distilling spirits and making sugar is everywhere prohibited, and the distillers and sugar-refiners are constantly complaining. Distilling is not banned in Futienpu, Hengshan County, but prices are fixed very low, and the wine and spirits dealers
seeing no prospect of profit,have had to stop it. Pigs.The number of pigs a family can keep is limited,for pigs consume grain Chickens and ducks.In Hsianghsiang County the raising of chickens and ducks is prohibited,but the women object.In Hengshan County,each family in Yangtang is allowed to keep only three,and in Futienpu five.In many places the raising of ducks is completely banned,for ducks not only consume grain but also ruin the rice plants and so are worse than chickens. Feasts.Sumptuous feasts are generally forbidden.In Shaoshan,Hsiangtan County,it has been decided that guests are to be served with only three kinds of animal food,namely,chicken,fish and pork.It is also forbidden to serve bamboo shoots,kelp and lentil noodles.In Hengshan County it has been resolved that eight dishes and no more may be served at a banquet.[28]Only five dishes are allowed in the East Third District in Liling County,and only three meat and three vegetable dishes in the North Second District,while in the West Third District New Year feasts are forbidden entirely.In Hsianghsiang County,there is a ban on all "egg-cake feasts",which are by no means sumptuous.When a family in the Second District of Hsianghsiang gave an "egg-cake feast"at a son's wedding,the peasants,seeing the ban violated,swarmed into the house and broke up the celebration.In the town of Chiamo,Hsianghsiang County,the people have refrained from eating expensive foods and use only fruit when offering ancestral sacrifices. Oxen.Oxen are a treasured possession of the peasants."Slaughter an ox in this life and you will be an ox in the next"has become almost a religious tenet;oxen must never be killed.Before the peasants had power,they could only appeal to religious taboo in opposing the slaughter of cattle and had no means of banning it.Since the rise of the peasant associations their jurisdiction has extended even to the cattle,and they have prohibited the slaughter of cattle in the towns.Of the six butcheries in the county town of Hsiangtan,five are now closed and the remaining one slaughters only enfeebled or disabled animals.The slaughter of cattle is totally prohibited throughout the county of Hengshan.A peasant whose ox broke a leg consulted the peasant association before he dared kill it.When the Chamber of Commerce of Chuchow rashly slaughtered a cow,the peasants came into town and demanded an explanation,and the chamber,besides paying a fine,had to let off firecrackers by way of apology Tramps and vagabonds.A resolution passed in Liling County prohibited the drumming of New Year greetings or the chanting of praises to the local deities or the singing of lotus rhymes.Various other counties have similar prohibitions,or these practices have disappeared of themselves,as no one observes them any more.The "beggar-bullies"or "vagabonds"who used to be extremely aggressive now have no alternative but to submit to the peasant associations.In Shaoshan, Hsiangtan County,the vagabonds used to make the temple of the Rain God their regular haunt and feared nobody,but since the rise of the associations they have stolen away.The peasant association in Huti Township in the same county caught three such tramps and made them carry clay for the brick kilns.Resolutions have been passed prohibiting the wasteful customs associated with New Year calls and gifts. Besides these,many other minor prohibitions have been introduced in various places,such as the
seeing no prospect of profit, have had to stop it. Pigs.The number of pigs a family can keep is limited, for pigs consume grain. Chickens and ducks.In Hsianghsiang County the raising of chickens and ducks is prohibited, but the women object. In Hengshan County, each family in Yangtang is allowed to keep only three, and in Futienpu five. In many places the raising of ducks is completely banned, for ducks not only consume grain but also ruin the rice plants and so are worse than chickens. Feasts.Sumptuous feasts are generally forbidden. In Shaoshan, Hsiangtan County, it has been decided that guests are to be served with only three kinds of animal food, namely, chicken, fish and pork. It is also forbidden to serve bamboo shoots, kelp and lentil noodles. In Hengshan County it has been resolved that eight dishes and no more may be served at a banquet. [28] Only five dishes are allowed in the East Third District in Liling County, and only three meat and three vegetable dishes in the North Second District, while in the West Third District New Year feasts are forbidden entirely. In Hsianghsiang County, there is a ban on all "egg-cake feasts", which are by no means sumptuous. When a family in the Second District of Hsianghsiang gave an "egg-cake feast" at a son's wedding, the peasants, seeing the ban violated, swarmed into the house and broke up the celebration. In the town of Chiamo, Hsianghsiang County, the people have refrained from eating expensive foods and use only fruit when offering ancestral sacrifices. Oxen.Oxen are a treasured possession of the peasants. "Slaughter an ox in this life and you will be an ox in the next" has become almost a religious tenet; oxen must never be killed. Before the peasants had power, they could only appeal to religious taboo in opposing the slaughter of cattle and had no means of banning it. Since the rise of the peasant associations their jurisdiction has extended even to the cattle, and they have prohibited the slaughter of cattle in the towns. Of the six butcheries in the county town of Hsiangtan, five are now closed and the remaining one slaughters only enfeebled or disabled animals. The slaughter of cattle is totally prohibited throughout the county of Hengshan. A peasant whose ox broke a leg consulted the peasant association before he dared kill it. When the Chamber of Commerce of Chuchow rashly slaughtered a cow, the peasants came into town and demanded an explanation, and the chamber, besides paying a fine, had to let off firecrackers by way of apology. Tramps and vagabonds.A resolution passed in Liling County prohibited the drumming of New Year greetings or the chanting of praises to the local deities or the singing of lotus rhymes. Various other counties have similar prohibitions, or these practices have disappeared of themselves, as no one observes them any more. The "beggar-bullies" or "vagabonds" who used to be extremely aggressive now have no alternative but to submit to the peasant associations. In Shaoshan, Hsiangtan County, the vagabonds used to make the temple of the Rain God their regular haunt and feared nobody, but since the rise of the associations they have stolen away. The peasant association in Huti Township in the same county caught three such tramps and made them carry clay for the brick kilns. Resolutions have been passed prohibiting the wasteful customs associated with New Year calls and gifts. Besides these, many other minor prohibitions have been introduced in various places, such as the
Liling prohibitions on incense-burning processions to propitiate the god of pestilence,on buying preserves and fruit for ritual presents,burning ritual paper garments during the Festival of Spirits and pasting up good-luck posters at the New Year At Kushui in Hsianghsiang County,there is a prohibition even on smoking water-pipes.In the Second District,letting off firecrackers and ceremonial guns is forbidden,with a fine of 1.20 yuan for the former and 2.40 yuan for the latter. Religious rites for the dead are prohibited in the 7th and 20th Districts.In the 18th District,it is forbidden to make funeral gifts of money.Things like these,which defy enumeration,may be generally called peasant bans and prohibitions. They are of great significance in two respects.First,they represent a revolt against bad social customs,such as gaming,gambling opium-smoking.These customs arose out of the rotten political environment of the landlord class and are swept away once its authority is overthrown.Second,the prohibitions are a form of self-defence against exploitation by city merchants;such are the prohibitions on feasts and on buying preserves and fruit for ritual presents.Manufactured goods are extremely dear and agricultural products are extremely cheap,the peasants are impoverished and ruthlessly exploited by the merchants and they must therefore encourage frugality to protect themselves.As for the ban on sending grain out of the area,it is imposed to prevent the price from rising because the poor peasants have not enough to feed themselves and have to buy grain on the market.The reason for all this is the peasants'poverty and the contradictions between town and country;it is not a matter of their rejecting manufactured goods or trade between town and country in order to uphold the so-called Doctrine of Oriental Culture.[29]To protect themselves economically,the peasants must organize consumers'co-operatives for the collective buying of goods.It is also necessary for the government to help the peasant associations establish credit(loan) co-operatives.If these things were done,the peasants would naturally End it unnecessary to ban the outflow of grain as a method of keeping down the price,nor would they have to prohibit the inflow of certain manufactured goods in economic self-defence. 10.ELIMINATING BANDITRY In my opinion,no ruler in any dynasty from Yu,Tang,Wen and Wu down to the Ching emperors and the presidents of the Republic has ever shown as much prowess in eliminating banditry as have the peasant associations today.Wherever the peasant associations are powerful there is not a trace of banditry.Surprisingly enough,in many places even the pilfering of vegetables has disappeared. In other places there are still some pilferers.But in the counties I visited,even including those that were formerly bandit-ridden,there was no trace of bandits.The reasons are:First,the members of the peasant associations are everywhere spread out over the hills and dales,spear or cudgel in hand, ready to go into action in their hundreds,so that the bandits have nowhere to hide.Second,since the rise of the peasant movement the price of grain has dropped-it was six yuan a picul last spring but only two yuan last winter-and the problem of food has become less serious for the people. Third,members of the secret societies [30]have joined the peasant associations,in which they can openly and legally play the hero and vent their grievances,so that there is no further need for the secret "mountain","lodge","shrine"and "river"forms of organization.[31]In killing the pigs and shrine of the local tyrants and evil gentry and imposing heavy levies and fines,they have adequate outlets for their feelings against those who oppressed them.Fourth,the armies are recruiting large numbers of soldiers and many of the "unruly"have joined up.Thus the evil of banditry has ended
Liling prohibitions on incense-burning processions to propitiate the god of pestilence, on buying preserves and fruit for ritual presents, burning ritual paper garments during the Festival of Spirits and pasting up good-luck posters at the New Year At Kushui in Hsianghsiang County, there is a prohibition even on smoking water-pipes. In the Second District, letting off firecrackers and ceremonial guns is forbidden, with a fine of 1.20 yuan for the former and 2.40 yuan for the latter. Religious rites for the dead are prohibited in the 7th and 20th Districts. In the 18th District, it is forbidden to make funeral gifts of money. Things like these, which defy enumeration, may be generally called peasant bans and prohibitions. They are of great significance in two respects. First, they represent a revolt against bad social customs, such as gaming, gambling opium-smoking. These customs arose out of the rotten political environment of the landlord class and are swept away once its authority is overthrown. Second, the prohibitions are a form of self-defence against exploitation by city merchants; such are the prohibitions on feasts and on buying preserves and fruit for ritual presents. Manufactured goods are extremely dear and agricultural products are extremely cheap, the peasants are impoverished and ruthlessly exploited by the merchants and they must therefore encourage frugality to protect themselves. As for the ban on sending grain out of the area, it is imposed to prevent the price from rising because the poor peasants have not enough to feed themselves and have to buy grain on the market. The reason for all this is the peasants' poverty and the contradictions between town and country; it is not a matter of their rejecting manufactured goods or trade between town and country in order to uphold the so-called Doctrine of Oriental Culture. [29] To protect themselves economically, the peasants must organize consumers' co-operatives for the collective buying of goods. It is also necessary for the government to help the peasant associations establish credit (loan) co-operatives. If these things were done, the peasants would naturally End it unnecessary to ban the outflow of grain as a method of keeping down the price, nor would they have to prohibit the inflow of certain manufactured goods in economic self-defence. 10. ELIMINATING BANDITRY In my opinion, no ruler in any dynasty from Yu, Tang, Wen and Wu down to the Ching emperors and the presidents of the Republic has ever shown as much prowess in eliminating banditry as have the peasant associations today. Wherever the peasant associations are powerful there is not a trace of banditry. Surprisingly enough, in many places even the pilfering of vegetables has disappeared. In other places there are still some pilferers. But in the counties I visited, even including those that were formerly bandit-ridden, there was no trace of bandits. The reasons are: First, the members of the peasant associations are everywhere spread out over the hills and dales, spear or cudgel in hand, ready to go into action in their hundreds, so that the bandits have nowhere to hide. Second, since the rise of the peasant movement the price of grain has dropped-it was six yuan a picul last spring but only two yuan last winter-and the problem of food has become less serious for the people. Third, members of the secret societies [30] have joined the peasant associations, in which they can openly and legally play the hero and vent their grievances, so that there is no further need for the secret "mountain", "lodge", "shrine" and "river" forms of organization. [31] In killing the pigs and shrine of the local tyrants and evil gentry and imposing heavy levies and fines, they have adequate outlets for their feelings against those who oppressed them. Fourth, the armies are recruiting large numbers of soldiers and many of the "unruly" have joined up. Thus the evil of banditry has ended
with the rise of the peasant movement.On this point,even the well-to-do approve of the peasant associations.Their comment is,"The peasant associations?Well,to be fair,there is also something to be said for them." In prohibiting gaming,gambling and opium-smoking,and in eliminating banditry,the peasant associations have won general approval. 11.ABOLISHING EXORBITANT LEVIES As the country is not yet unifies and the authority of the imperialists and the warlords has not been overthrown,there is as yet no way of removing the heavy burden of government taxes and levies on the peasants or,more explicitly,of removing the burden of expenditure for the revolutionary army. However,the exorbitant levies imposed on the peasants when the local tyrants and evil gentry dominated rural administration,e.g.,the surcharge on each mou of land,have been abolished or at least reduced with the rise of the peasant movement and the downfall of the local tyrants and evil gentry.This too should be counted among the achievements of the peasant associations. 12.THE MOVEMENT FOR EDUCATION In China education has always been the exclusive preserve of the landlords,and the peasants have had no access to it.But the landlords'culture is created by the peasants,for its sole source is the peasants'sweat and blood.In China 90 per cent of the people have had no education,and of these the overwhelming majority are peasants.The moment the power of the landlords was overthrown in the rural areas,the peasants'movement for education began.See how the peasants who hitherto detested the schools are today zealously setting up evening classes!They always disliked the "foreign-style school".In my student days,when I went back to the village and saw that the peasants were against the"foreign-style school",I,too,used to identify myself with the general run of"foreign-style students and teachers"and stand up for it,feeling that the peasants were somehow wrong.It was not until 1925,when I lived in the countryside for six months and was already a Communist and had acquired the Marxist viewpoint,that I realized I had been wrong and the peasants right.The texts used in the rural primary schools were entirely about urban things and unsuited to rural needs.Besides,the attitude of the primary school teachers towards the peasants was very bad and,far from being helpful to the peasants,they became objects of dislike.Hence the peasants preferred the old-style schools ("Chinese classes",as they called them)to the modern schools(which they called "foreign classes")and the old-style teachers to the ones in the primary schools.Now the peasants are enthusiastically establishing evening classes,which they call peasant schools.Some have already been opened,others are being organized,and on the average there is one school per township.The peasants are very enthusiastic about these schools,and regard them, and only them,as their own.The funds for the evening schools come from the "public revenue from superstition",from ancestral temple funds,and from other idle public funds or property.The county education boards wafted to use this money to establish primary schools,that is,"foreign- style schools"not suited to the needs of the peasants,while the latter wanted to use it for peasant schools,and the outcome of the dispute was that both got some of the money,though there are places where the peasants got it all.The development of the peasant movement has resulted in a rapid rise in their cultural level.Before long tens of thousands of schools will have sprung up in the
with the rise of the peasant movement. On this point, even the well-to-do approve of the peasant associations. Their comment is, "The peasant associations? Well, to be fair, there is also something to be said for them." In prohibiting gaming, gambling and opium-smoking, and in eliminating banditry, the peasant associations have won general approval. 11. ABOLISHING EXORBITANT LEVIES As the country is not yet unifies and the authority of the imperialists and the warlords has not been overthrown, there is as yet no way of removing the heavy burden of government taxes and levies on the peasants or, more explicitly, of removing the burden of expenditure for the revolutionary army. However, the exorbitant levies imposed on the peasants when the local tyrants and evil gentry dominated rural administration, e.g., the surcharge on each mou of land, have been abolished or at least reduced with the rise of the peasant movement and the downfall of the local tyrants and evil gentry. This too should be counted among the achievements of the peasant associations. 12. THE MOVEMENT FOR EDUCATION In China education has always been the exclusive preserve of the landlords, and the peasants have had no access to it. But the landlords' culture is created by the peasants, for its sole source is the peasants' sweat and blood. In China 90 per cent of the people have had no education, and of these the overwhelming majority are peasants. The moment the power of the landlords was overthrown in the rural areas, the peasants' movement for education began. See how the peasants who hitherto detested the schools are today zealously setting up evening classes! They always disliked the "foreign-style school". In my student days, when I went back to the village and saw that the peasants were against the "foreign-style school", I, too, used to identify myself with the general run of "foreign-style students and teachers" and stand up for it, feeling that the peasants were somehow wrong. It was not until 1925, when I lived in the countryside for six months and was already a Communist and had acquired the Marxist viewpoint, that I realized I had been wrong and the peasants right. The texts used in the rural primary schools were entirely about urban things and unsuited to rural needs. Besides, the attitude of the primary school teachers towards the peasants was very bad and, far from being helpful to the peasants, they became objects of dislike. Hence the peasants preferred the old-style schools ("Chinese classes", as they called them) to the modern schools (which they called "foreign classes") and the old-style teachers to the ones in the primary schools. Now the peasants are enthusiastically establishing evening classes, which they call peasant schools. Some have already been opened, others are being organized, and on the average there is one school per township. The peasants are very enthusiastic about these schools, and regard them, and only them, as their own. The funds for the evening schools come from the "public revenue from superstition", from ancestral temple funds, and from other idle public funds or property. The county education boards wafted to use this money to establish primary schools, that is, "foreignstyle schools" not suited to the needs of the peasants, while the latter wanted to use it for peasant schools, and the outcome of the dispute was that both got some of the money, though there are places where the peasants got it all. The development of the peasant movement has resulted in a rapid rise in their cultural level. Before long tens of thousands of schools will have sprung up in the
villages throughout the province;this is quite different from the empty talk about "universal education",which the intelligentsia and the so-called "educationalists"have been bandying back and forth and which after all this time remains an empty phrase. 13.THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT The peasants really need co-operatives,and especially consumers',marketing and credit co- operatives.When they buy goods,the merchants exploit them;when they sell their farm produce, the merchants cheat them;when they borrow money for rice,they are fleeced by the usurers,and they are eager to kind a solution to these three problems.During the fighting in the Yangtze valley last winter,when trade routes were cut and the price of salt went up in Hunan,many peasants organized co-operatives to purchase salt.When the landlords deliberately stopped lending,there were many attempts by the peasants to organize credit agencies,because they needed to borrow money.A major problem is the absence of detailed,standard rules of organization.As these spontaneously organized peasant co-operatives often fail to conform to co-operative principles,the comrades working among the peasants are always eagerly enquiring about "rules and regulations" Given proper guidance,the co-operative movement can spread everywhere along with the growth of the peasant associations. 14.BUILDING ROADSAND REPAIRING EMBANKMENTS This,too,is one of the achievements of the peasant associations.Before there were peasant associations the roads in the countryside were terrible.Roads cannot be repaired without money, and as the wealthy were unwilling to dip into their purses,the roads were left in a bad state.If there was any road work done at all,it was done as an act of charity;a little money was collected from families "wishing to gain merit in the next world",and a few narrow,skimpily paved roads were built.With the rise of the peasant associations orders have been given specifying the required width-three,five,seven or ten feet,according to the requirements of the different routes-and each landlord along a road has been ordered to build a section.Once the order is given,who dares to disobey?In a short time many good roads have appeared.This is no work of charity but the result of compulsion,and a little compulsion of this kind is not at all a bad thing.The same is true of the embankments.The ruthless landlords were always out to take what they could from the tenant- peasants and would never spend even a few coppers on embankment repairs;they would leave the ponds to dry up and the tenant-peasants to starve,caring about nothing but the rent.Now that there are peasant associations,the landlords can be bluntly ordered to repair the embankments.When a landlord refuses,the association will tell him politely,"Very well!If you won't do the repairs,you will contribute grain,a tou for each work-day."As this is a bad bargain for the landlord,he hastens to do the repairs.Consequently many defective embankments have been turned into good ones. All the fourteen deeds enumerated above have been accomplished by the peasants under the leadership of the peasant associations.Would the reader please think it over and say whether any of them is bad in its fundamental spirit and revolutionary significance?Only the local tyrants and evil gentry,I think,will call them bad.Curiously enough,it is reported from Nanchang [32]that Chiang Kai-shek,Chang Ching-chiang [33]and other such gentlemen do not altogether approve of the activities of the Hunan peasants.This opinion is shared by Liu Yueh-chih [34]and other right-wing
villages throughout the province; this is quite different from the empty talk about "universal education", which the intelligentsia and the so-called "educationalists" have been bandying back and forth and which after all this time remains an empty phrase. 13. THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT The peasants really need co-operatives, and especially consumers', marketing and credit cooperatives. When they buy goods, the merchants exploit them; when they sell their farm produce, the merchants cheat them; when they borrow money for rice, they are fleeced by the usurers; and they are eager to kind a solution to these three problems. During the fighting in the Yangtze valley last winter, when trade routes were cut and the price of salt went up in Hunan, many peasants organized co-operatives to purchase salt. When the landlords deliberately stopped lending, there were many attempts by the peasants to organize credit agencies, because they needed to borrow money. A major problem is the absence of detailed, standard rules of organization. As these spontaneously organized peasant co-operatives often fail to conform to co-operative principles, the comrades working among the peasants are always eagerly enquiring about "rules and regulations". Given proper guidance, the co-operative movement can spread everywhere along with the growth of the peasant associations. 14. BUILDING ROADS AND REPAIRING EMBANKMENTS This, too, is one of the achievements of the peasant associations. Before there were peasant associations the roads in the countryside were terrible. Roads cannot be repaired without money, and as the wealthy were unwilling to dip into their purses, the roads were left in a bad state. If there was any road work done at all, it was done as an act of charity; a little money was collected from families "wishing to gain merit in the next world", and a few narrow, skimpily paved roads were built. With the rise of the peasant associations orders have been given specifying the required width-three, five, seven or ten feet, according to the requirements of the different routes-and each landlord along a road has been ordered to build a section. Once the order is given, who dares to disobey? In a short time many good roads have appeared. This is no work of charity but the result of compulsion, and a little compulsion of this kind is not at all a bad thing. The same is true of the embankments. The ruthless landlords were always out to take what they could from the tenantpeasants and would never spend even a few coppers on embankment repairs; they would leave the ponds to dry up and the tenant-peasants to starve, caring about nothing but the rent. Now that there are peasant associations, the landlords can be bluntly ordered to repair the embankments. When a landlord refuses, the association will tell him politely, "Very well! If you won't do the repairs, you will contribute grain, a tou for each work-day." As this is a bad bargain for the landlord, he hastens to do the repairs. Consequently many defective embankments have been turned into good ones. All the fourteen deeds enumerated above have been accomplished by the peasants under the leadership of the peasant associations. Would the reader please think it over and say whether any of them is bad in its fundamental spirit and revolutionary significance? Only the local tyrants and evil gentry, I think, will call them bad. Curiously enough, it is reported from Nanchang [32] that Chiang Kai-shek, Chang Ching-chiang [33] and other such gentlemen do not altogether approve of the activities of the Hunan peasants. This opinion is shared by Liu Yueh-chih [34] and other right-wing