CONTENTS Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 278 Real-Life Syllogisms 279 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 283 Recap 285 Additional Exercises 286 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments Il Truth-Functional Logic 297 Truth Tables and the Truth-Functional Symbols 298 Claim variables 298 Truth Tables 298 Symbolizing Compound Claims 304 "If"and"Only If"308 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 310 Unless" 312 "Either" 312 Truth-Functional Arguments 314 The Truth-Table method 31 The Short Truth-Table method 318 Deductions 322 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 323 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 328 Conditional proof 334 Recap 338 Additional Exercises 338 Chapter 10 Three Kinds of Inductive Arguments 346 Arguing from the General to the Specific(Inductive Syllogisms) 347 Arguing from the Specific to the General(Inductive Generalizing) 348 Examples 351 Inductive Arguments from Analogy 353 Attacking the Analogy 358 Random Variation, Error Margins, and Confidence Levels 358 Everyday Inductive Arguments 360 Informal Error- Margin and Confidence-Level Indicators 360 Fallacies in Inductive Reasoning 361 Illicit Inductive Conversions 363
Revised Pages CONTENTS vii Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 278 Real-Life Syllogisms 279 The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 283 Recap 285 Additional Exercises 286 Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 297 Truth Tables and the Truth-Functional Symbols 298 Claim Variables 298 Truth Tables 298 Symbolizing Compound Claims 304 “If” and “Only If” 308 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 310 “Unless” 312 “Either . . .” 312 Truth-Functional Arguments 314 The Truth-Table Method 314 The Short Truth-Table Method 318 Deductions 322 Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 323 Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 328 Conditional Proof 334 Recap 338 Additional Exercises 338 Chapter 10 Three Kinds of Inductive Arguments 346 Arguing from the General to the Specific (Inductive Syllogisms) 347 Arguing from the Specific to the General (Inductive Generalizing) 348 Examples 351 Inductive Arguments from Analogy 353 Attacking the Analogy 358 Random Variation, Error Margins, and Confidence Levels 358 Everyday Inductive Arguments 360 Informal Error-Margin and Confidence-Level Indicators 360 Fallacies in Inductive Reasoning 361 Illicit Inductive Conversions 363 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd vii 6/23/08 3:45:14 PM
Analogies: The Rest of the Story 364 Polls: Problems and pitfalls 366 Self-Selected Samples 366 Slanted Questions 368 Playing by the Numbers 368 Recap 371 Exercises 373 Chapter 11 Causal Explanation 385 Two Kinds of Explanations 386 Physical Causal Explanations 386 Behavioral Causal Explanations 387 Explanatory Adequacy: A Relative Concept 389 The Importance of Testability 389 Nontestable Explanations 389 Circular Explanations 392 Unnecessary Complexity 392 Forming Hypotheses 393 The Method of Difference 393 The Method of Agreement 394 Causal Mechanisms and Background Knowledge 396 The Best Diagnosis Method 397 General Causal Claims 399 Confirming Causal Hypotheses 400 Controlled Cause-to-Effect Experiments 400 Alternative Methods of Testing Causal Hypotheses in Human Populations 402 Nonexperimental Cause-to-Effect Studies 402 Nonexperimental Effect-to-Cause Studies 403 Experiments on Animals 403 Mistakes in Causal Reasoning 404 Confusing Effect with Cause in Medical Tests 405 Overlooking Statistical Regression 406 Proof by Absence of Disproof 409 Appeal to Anecdote 409 Confusing Explanations with Excuses 410 Causation in the law 410
Revised Pages viii CONTENTS Analogies: The Rest of the Story 364 Polls: Problems and Pitfalls 366 Self-Selected Samples 366 Slanted Questions 368 Playing by the Numbers 368 Recap 371 Exercises 373 Chapter 11 Causal Explanation 385 Two Kinds of Explanations 386 Physical Causal Explanations 386 Behavioral Causal Explanations 387 Explanatory Adequacy: A Relative Concept 389 The Importance of Testability 389 Nontestable Explanations 389 Circular Explanations 392 Unnecessary Complexity 392 Forming Hypotheses 393 The Method of Difference 393 The Method of Agreement 394 Causal Mechanisms and Background Knowledge 396 The Best Diagnosis Method 397 General Causal Claims 399 Confirming Causal Hypotheses 400 Controlled Cause-to-Effect Experiments 400 Alternative Methods of Testing Causal Hypotheses in Human Populations 402 Nonexperimental Cause-to-Effect Studies 402 Nonexperimental Effect-to-Cause Studies 403 Experiments on Animals 403 Mistakes in Causal Reasoning 404 Confusing Effect with Cause in Medical Tests 405 Overlooking Statistical Regression 406 Proof by Absence of Disproof 409 Appeal to Anecdote 409 Confusing Explanations with Excuses 410 Causation in the Law 410 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd viii 6/23/08 3:45:14 PM
CONTENTS Recap 413 Exercises 413 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 436 Value Judgments 437 Moral versus Nonmoral 438 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 438 Moral Principles 440 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 440 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 44 Consequentialism 441 Duty Theory/Deontologism 443 Moral relativism 445 Religious Relativism 445 Religious Absolutism 446 Virtue ethics 446 Moral Deliberation 447 Legal Reasoning 456 Justifying Laws: F our Perspectives 457 Aesthetic Reasoning 460 Eight Aesthetic Principles 460 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 462 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 464 Why Reason Aesthetically? 466 Recap 467 Additional Exercises 469 Appendix 1 Essays for Analysis (and a Few Other Items) 472 Selection 1:"Three strikes and the whole enchilada" 472 Selection 2: " Controlling Irrational Fears After 9/11"473 Selection 3: Excerpts from Federal Court Ruling on the Pledge of Allegiance 475 Selection 4: " Gays'Impact on Marriage Underestimated by Jeff Jacoby 476 Selection 5: " Bush's Environmental Record"by Bob Herbert 478
Revised Pages CONTENTS ix Recap 413 Exercises 413 Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 436 Value Judgments 437 Moral Versus Nonmoral 438 Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 438 Moral Principles 440 Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 440 Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 441 Consequentialism 441 Duty Theory/Deontologism 443 Moral Relativism 445 Religious Relativism 445 Religious Absolutism 446 Virtue Ethics 446 Moral Deliberation 447 Legal Reasoning 456 Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 457 Aesthetic Reasoning 460 Eight Aesthetic Principles 460 Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 462 Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 464 Why Reason Aesthetically? 466 Recap 467 Additional Exercises 469 Appendix 1 Essays for Analysis (and a Few Other Items) 472 Selection 1: “Three Strikes and the Whole Enchilada” 472 Selection 2: “Controlling Irrational Fears After 9/11” 473 Selection 3: Excerpts from Federal Court Ruling on the Pledge of Allegiance 475 Selection 4: “Gays’ Impact on Marriage Underestimated” by Jeff Jacoby 476 Selection 5: “Bush’s Environmental Record” by Bob Herbert 478 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd ix 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM
Selection 6: "Death Penalty Has No Place in the U.S. y Cynthia Tucker 479 Selection 7: " Please, No More Gambling!"(Editorial) 480 Selection 8: Hetero by Choice? by Richard Parker 481 Selection 9: Bonnie and clyde 482 election 10: Disinformation on Judges" by thomas sowell 483 elections 11A and 11B: " Equal Treatment Is Real Issue- by the Rev. Louis P Shel day, and"Gay Marriage"Unnatural Selection 12:"Liberals Love America Like o.J. Loved nicole" by Ann Coulter 486 Selection 13: Is God Part of Integrity? "(Editorial) 487 Selection 14: Calling the Kettle Gay "by Ann Coulter 488 Selections 15A and 15B: Make Fast Food Smoke-Free"from USA Today, and"Don't Overreact to Smoke"by Brennan M. Dawson 489 Selections 16A and 16B: "Buying Notes Makes Sense at Lost-in-Crowd Campuses"from USA Today, and"Buying or Selling Notes Is Wrong"by Moore and parker 491 elections 17A and 17B: Next, Comprehensive Reform of Gun Laws" from USA Today, and"Gun Laws Are No Answer by Alan M. Gottlieb 493 Selection 18: Letter from the national rifle Association 494 Selections 19A and 19B: How Can School Prayer Possibly Hurt? Here's How"from USA Today, and "We Need More Prayer by Armstrong Williams 496 Online Unit: Appendix 2 The Scrapbook of Unusual Issues Glos Answers, Suggestions, and Tips for Triangle Exercises 506 Credits 529 Index 531
Revised Pages x CONTENTS Selection 6: “Death Penalty Has No Place in the U.S.” by Cynthia Tucker 479 Selection 7: “Please, No More Gambling!” (Editorial) 480 Selection 8: “Hetero by Choice?” by Richard Parker 481 Selection 9: Bonnie and Clyde 482 Selection 10: “Disinformation on Judges” by Thomas Sowell 483 Selections 11A and 11B: “Equal Treatment Is Real Issue— Not Marriage” from USA Today, and “Gay Marriage ‘Unnatural’” by the Rev. Louis P. Sheldon 484 Selection 12: “Liberals Love America Like O.J. Loved Nicole” by Ann Coulter 486 Selection 13: “Is God Part of Integrity?” (Editorial) 487 Selection 14: “Calling the Kettle Gay” by Ann Coulter 488 Selections 15A and 15B: “Make Fast Food Smoke-Free” from USA Today, and “Don’t Overreact to Smoke” by Brennan M. Dawson 489 Selections 16A and 16B: “Buying Notes Makes Sense at Lost-in-Crowd Campuses” from USA Today, and “Buying or Selling Notes Is Wrong” by Moore and Parker 491 Selections 17A and 17B: “Next, Comprehensive Reform of Gun Laws” from USA Today, and “Gun Laws Are No Answer” by Alan M. Gottlieb 493 Selection 18: Letter from the National Rifle Association 494 Selections 19A and 19B: “How Can School Prayer Possibly Hurt? Here’s How” from USA Today, and “We Need More Prayer” by Armstrong Williams 496 Online Unit: Appendix 2 The Scrapbook of Unusual Issues Glossary 499 Answers, Suggestions, and Tips for Triangle Exercises 506 Credits 529 Index 531 moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd x 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM
Preface im Bull, Ken King, Jon-David Hague-we've gone through editors like corn meal goes through a goose. They were all good men. But this new guy, Mr Georgiev, may be cut from stiffer cloth. Weve never met him His past is mysterious; we've heard stories that he was stolen away from another publisher, and we ve also heard that he escaped single-handedly after being captured during the fighting in Chechnya. We don't know It only took one conference call, though, to learn he meant business. We weren't sure how to begin. Finally, Moore spoke: " Besides the usual updating, we have some serious changes for this edition, "he said. Silence from the other end e 5 C, We want to move a whole chapter, Parker added. Still no response "And there are some important concepts that need dealing with in several Lapters, "Parker continued Yeah, "Moore chimed in. "We have a great new take on the two induc e argument chapters. And more stuff on visuals, "Parker tacked on. A long moment of silence Do it all, "Georgiev said. "Im sending gouijnstook to ride herd on the roject that we were impressed with the decisiveness. We were even more impressed he could pronounce the name of our developmental editor, Susan Goui instook "Probably the linguistic training they get in the secret service or the KGB or whatever, " Moore guessed. And so, under the gentle urging and occasional whiplash of Susan G and with some good advice from a phalanx of reviewers, we have once again produced what we hope is a better book than the one that went before. See the chapter-by-chapter listings following for a more detailed look at what's new. WELCOME TO THE NINTH EDITION Yes, we know: nine editions. It was a surprise the first time a young professor came up to us at a meeting and told us he was teaching from this book, and that its first edition had been his text when he took his own critical thinking course. Now, shockingly, we hear from students using the book whose parents used it as undergraduates. Good grief Keeping Up We hope our efforts to keep the book topical, readable, and, most importantly teachable have been responsible for the remarkable loyalty adopters have shown toward it over the years-we are both gratified and appreciative. This edition continues the process. Examples and exercises have been updated from one end of the book to the other As we get older(Moore comments on Parkers wrinkles; Parker wonders what became of Moores hair), it is more and more important to remember that what's moderately recent news for us is ancient history for most of our students
Revised Pages xi Preface J im Bull, Ken King, Jon-David Hague—we’ve gone through editors like corn meal goes through a goose. They were all good men. But this new guy, Mr. Georgiev, may be cut from stiffer cloth. We’ve never met him. His past is mysterious; we’ve heard stories that he was stolen away from another publisher, and we’ve also heard that he escaped single-handedly after being captured during the fighting in Chechnya. We don’t know. It only took one conference call, though, to learn he meant business. We weren’t sure how to begin. Finally, Moore spoke: “Besides the usual updating, we have some serious changes for this edition,” he said. Silence from the other end. “We want to move a whole chapter,” Parker added. Still no response. “And there are some important concepts that need dealing with in several chapters,” Parker continued. “Yeah,” Moore chimed in. “We have a great new take on the two inductive argument chapters.” “And more stuff on visuals,” Parker tacked on. A long moment of silence followed, then: “Do it all,” Georgiev said. “I’m sending Gouijnstook to ride herd on the project.” We were impressed with the decisiveness. We were even more impressed that he could pronounce the name of our developmental editor, Susan Gouijnstook. “Probably the linguistic training they get in the secret service or the KGB or whatever,” Moore guessed. And so, under the gentle urging and occasional whiplash of Susan G., and with some good advice from a phalanx of reviewers, we have once again produced what we hope is a better book than the one that went before. See the chapter-by-chapter listings following for a more detailed look at what’s new. WELCOME TO THE NINTH EDITION Yes, we know: nine editions. It was a surprise the first time a young professor came up to us at a meeting and told us he was teaching from this book, and that its first edition had been his text when he took his own critical thinking course. Now, shockingly, we hear from students using the book whose parents used it as undergraduates. Good grief. Keeping Up We hope our efforts to keep the book topical, readable, and, most importantly, teachable have been responsible for the remarkable loyalty adopters have shown toward it over the years—we are both gratified and appreciative. This edition continues the process. Examples and exercises have been updated from one end of the book to the other. As we get older (Moore comments on Parker’s wrinkles; Parker wonders what became of Moore’s hair), it is more and more important to remember that what’s moderately recent news for us is ancient history for most of our students. moo86677_fm_i-xxii.indd xi 6/23/08 3:45:15 PM