《大学英语读写》课程教学资源（B）Ⅱ_大学英语读写（B）Ⅱ_Ken's book.pdf_P16-P20

In addition to these three sections, this book is also divided into three themes, each containing four units: • Theme 1 addresses conceptions and controversies around the nature of EAP and its role in academic literacy education and particularly how EAP is inextricably related to wider social, cultural and institutional issues. The units focus on important topics such as the disciplinary specificity of teaching, EAP’s relation to theories of situated literacy, critical pedagogy and study skills, and the expanding global role of academic English. • Theme 2 explores key ideas and methods which inform EAP practice, looking more closely at the ways individuals participate in academic life and the theoretical and analytical tools we use to understand these forms of participation. Units in this theme concern the influence of discourse, discipline and culture on academic communication and the use of genre analysis, corpus linguistics and ethnographic methods in understanding academic texts, activities and contexts. • Theme 3 deals with the practical issues of EAP course design and delivery, pulling together aspects of investigating, planning and teaching. In particular, these units explore different meanings of students’ needs and the relationships of these needs to course design, the design and sequencing of tasks and consideration of appropriate teaching methods, working with subject teaching staff, monitoring learner progress and providing effective intervention. Each unit in Section A concludes with an annotated list of some key texts, and a detailed glossary is supplied at the end covering central terms from EAP and applied linguistics. There are basically two ways to use this book. The first is to go through Section A first, and then on to Sections B and C. The advantage is that, after reading Section A, students will have acquired some knowledge about the issues discussed further in the selected readings and explored in the later parts. Some of the tasks in Sections B and C are based on this approach because they refer to theories and concepts that are discussed in Section A. The other approach is to go through the same unit in each section sequentially, so first A1, B1 and C1, then A2, B2, C2 and so on. The advantage of that approach is that the issues presented in Section A are developed more deeply through the combination of theory, readings and tasks. It is, however, not necessary to work through the twelve units in order; they can be chosen according to interest and purpose, and according to the reader’s experience in the field to date. xvi How to use this book

Introduction modern university.much like the modern workplace.involve far more than simply controlling linguistic error or polishing style.In fact,international research, perience and practice provide evidence for the heightened,complex and highly diversified nature of such demands.Supported by an expanding range of publi- cations and research journals,there is growing awareness that students,including native English-speakers,have to take on new roles and engage with knowledge in new ways when they enter university.They find that they need to write and read unfamiliar genres and participate in novel speech events.Such broad definitions therefore fail to capture the diverse ways that EAP seeks to understand and engage learners in a critical understanding of the increasingly varied contexts and practices of academic communication. More specifically,current EAP aims at capturing'thicker'descriptions of language use in the academy at all age and proficiency levels,incorporating and often going beyond immediate communicative contexts to understand the nature of disciplinary knowledge itself.It employs a range of interdisciplinary influences for its research methods,theories and practices to provide insights into the structures and mean ings of spoken,written,visual and electronic academic texts,into the demand prac short,specializ English-language teaching groundedi n the social,cognitive and linguisticd academ target situa s,provid ng10 cuse understanding of texts and the constraints of academic contexts Changing contexts mEngihor The ademic p dite P by and Hea on in 197 7 (orda 002 p. the ESP,toge erodoasEoPorBn2h8p nd steadily as E the in of global ma s this hap ng rea meant that p of graduates able to function in employment through English has become wth of English as the leading language for the dissemination of academic knowledge has had a major impact in bnding the careers of thousands of scholars to their competence n English Graddol,1997). These char s have been ac mpanied by a reater internationalization and global ization of higher education.Together with domestic policies advocating enhancing numbers of eligible university entrants in the UK,Australia,US and elsewhere,these factors have had a dramatic impact on universities.Student populations have become increasingly diverse,particularly in terms of their ethnic and linguistic

modern university, much like the modern workplace, involve far more than simply controlling linguistic error or polishing style. In fact, international research, experience and practice provide evidence for the heightened, complex and highly diversified nature of such demands. Supported by an expanding range of publications and research journals, there is growing awareness that students, including native English-speakers, have to take on new roles and engage with knowledge in new ways when they enter university. They find that they need to write and read unfamiliar genres and participate in novel speech events. Such broad definitions therefore fail to capture the diverse ways that EAP seeks to understand and engage learners in a critical understanding of the increasingly varied contexts and practices of academic communication. More specifically, current EAP aims at capturing ‘thicker’ descriptions of language use in the academy at all age and proficiency levels, incorporating and often going beyond immediate communicative contexts to understand the nature of disciplinary knowledge itself. It employs a range of interdisciplinary influences for its research methods, theories and practices to provide insights into the structures and meanings of spoken, written, visual and electronic academic texts, into the demands placed by academic contexts on communicative behaviours, and into the pedagogic practices by which these behaviours can be developed. It is, in short, specialized English-language teaching grounded in the social, cognitive and linguistic demands of academic target situations, providing focused instruction informed by an understanding of texts and the constraints of academic contexts. Changing contexts The term ‘English for Academic Purposes’ seems to have been coined by Tim Johns in 1974 and made its first published appearance in a collection of papers edited by Cowie and Heaton in 1977 (Jordan, 2002). By the time the journal English for Specific Purposes began in 1980, EAP was established as one of the two main branches of ESP, together with the use of language in professional and workplace settings (sometimes referred to as EOP or English for Occupational Purposes). Since then EAP has grown steadily as English has expanded with the increasing reach of global markets. For many countries this has meant that producing an annual crop of graduates able to function in employment through English has become an economic imperative. Similarly, the parallel growth of English as the leading language for the dissemination of academic knowledge has had a major impact in binding the careers of thousands of scholars to their competence in English (e.g. Graddol, 1997). These changes have been accompanied by a greater internationalization and globalization of higher education. Together with domestic policies advocating enhancing numbers of eligible university entrants in the UK, Australia, US and elsewhere, these factors have had a dramatic impact on universities. Student populations have become increasingly diverse, particularly in terms of their ethnic and linguistic 2 Introduction

Introduction backgrounds and educational experiences,and this presents significant challenges to university academic staff.There have also been other major changes in student demographics.With the rapid rise in refugee populations around the world,and a consequent increase in international migration,it is common for teachers to find non-native users of English in their high-school classrooms for whom the concept of'academic language in any language is an unfamiliar one. enges to comm e competence pre ciplinary-specific study mode s ot teaching and learning,and by changing com nic ative practice hin ar mv. context,diversit cness r ex nge op.There ow compelli ademi spectrum on whih ciplines pre ent chara m to ma in orde r to suc t the L11 d he PA re and students idly to negotia mp nd online)in order first to ope rate effective Another development pushing the expansion and increasing complexity of eap is a concern with the English-lang age skills of non-native English-speaking academics,especially those working in non-English-language countries wher English is used as the medium of university instruction,such as Hong Kong and pore The professional and institutional expectations of these academics are closely aligned with those in the'metropolitan'English-language- and whether the academic is a native or non-native user of Englishis immaterial to the roles they play and the jobs they perform.The ability to deliver lectures in English,to carry out administrative work,to participate in meetings,to present at international conferences.and.above all.to conduct and publish research in English,are all demanded as part of such lecturers'competence as academics. This group's needs and concerns are now beginning to be noticed and analysed and programmes are emerging which cater to their particular requirements. The response of EAP English for Academic Purposes is the language teaching profession's response to these developments,with the expansion of students studying in English leading to parallel increases in the number of EAP courses and teachers.Central to this 3

backgrounds and educational experiences, and this presents significant challenges to university academic staff. There have also been other major changes in student demographics. With the rapid rise in refugee populations around the world, and a consequent increase in international migration, it is common for teachers to find non-native users of English in their high-school classrooms for whom the concept of ‘academic language’ in any language is an unfamiliar one. The learning needs of all these student groups have a particular focus in the challenges to communicative competence presented by disciplinary-specific study, by modes of teaching and learning, and by changing communicative practices within and outside the academy. In this context, diversity takes on a particular importance. The distinctiveness of disciplinary communication, for example, presents considerable challenges to students, especially as such disciplines themselves change and develop. There is now compelling evidence across the academic spectrum that disciplines present characteristic and changing forms of communication which students must learn to master in order to succeed. At the same time, employers and professional bodies seek evidence of graduates’ general workplacerelevant communication skills – skills which need increasingly to be adaptable to new, often unpredictable contexts of communication. Further, while in the past the main vehicles of academic communication were written texts, now a broad range of modalities and presentational forms confront and challenge students’ communicative competence. They must learn rapidly to negotiate a complex web of disciplinary-specific text types, assessment tasks and presentational modes (both face-to-face and online) in order first to graduate, and then to operate effectively in the workplace. Another development pushing the expansion and increasing complexity of EAP is a concern with the English-language skills of non-native English-speaking academics, especially those working in non-English-language countries where English is used as the medium of university instruction, such as Hong Kong and Singapore. The professional and institutional expectations of these academics are closely aligned with those in the ‘metropolitan’ English-language-speaking countries and whether the academic is a native or non-native user of English is seen as immaterial to the roles they play and the jobs they perform. The ability to deliver lectures in English, to carry out administrative work, to participate in meetings, to present at international conferences, and, above all, to conduct and publish research in English, are all demanded as part of such lecturers’ competence as academics. This group’s needs and concerns are now beginning to be noticed and analysed and programmes are emerging which cater to their particular requirements. The response of EAP English for Academic Purposes is the language teaching profession’s response to these developments, with the expansion of students studying in English leading to parallel increases in the number of EAP courses and teachers. Central to this Introduction 3

Introduction response is the acknowledgement that the complexity and immediacy of the challenges outlined above cannot be addressed by some piecemeal remediation of individual error.Instead,EAP attempts to offer systematic,locally managed. solution-oriented approaches that address the pervasive and endemic challeng e posed by academic study to a diverse student body by focusing on student needs and discipline-specific communication skills. Course providers have recognized that teaching those who are using English for their studies differs from teaching those who are learning English for other purposes. and programmes designed to prepare non-native users of English for English- medium academic settings have grown into a multi-million-dollar enterprise around the world.For many learners,their first taste of academic study is through an EAP pre-sessional course,either in their home or in an overseas country.These courses are designed to improve students'academic communication skills in English to the level required for entry into an English-medium university or college, but there are similar developments at the other end of the educational ladder. It is increasingly understood,for instance,that children entering schooling can be helped to learn more effectively and to integrate better into the educational structure if they are taught specific academic skills and appropriate language use for such contexts. Thes developments have together helped reshape the ways that English-language teaching and search are conducted in hig ne genres and practi 500 ha had th e res t th aca mic ly under land,200 inte y pr ding 1 nary cu as hres ma ruction, interpretation and use ademic dis ome a centra The global growth of English in academic contexts also means that d the nglish and this has led h sin EAP MATESOL and oth dules o EAP fo cialist Master's d internationally.There is also increasing realization that eaP spans formal education level and m attention is n wheing ai n toeapi early schoolin and tono tgraduate thesis writing and dissertation supervison (Brn should we ee EAP courses as exclusively directed at nor n-native english-speakers Growing numbers of LI English-speakers who enter higher education without a background in academic communication skills have made EAP a critical aspect of their learning experiences

response is the acknowledgement that the complexity and immediacy of the challenges outlined above cannot be addressed by some piecemeal remediation of individual error. Instead, EAP attempts to offer systematic, locally managed, solution-oriented approaches that address the pervasive and endemic challenges posed by academic study to a diverse student body by focusing on student needs and discipline-specific communication skills. Course providers have recognized that teaching those who are using English for their studies differs from teaching those who are learning English for other purposes, and programmes designed to prepare non-native users of English for Englishmedium academic settings have grown into a multi-million-dollar enterprise around the world. For many learners, their first taste of academic study is through an EAP pre-sessional course, either in their home or in an overseas country. These courses are designed to improve students’ academic communication skills in English to the level required for entry into an English-medium university or college, but there are similar developments at the other end of the educational ladder. It is increasingly understood, for instance, that children entering schooling can be helped to learn more effectively and to integrate better into the educational structure if they are taught specific academic skills and appropriate language use for such contexts. These developments have together helped reshape the ways that English-language teaching and research are conducted in higher education, with a huge growth in research into the genres and practices of different academic contexts. This has had the result that the concept of a single, monolithic ‘academic English’ has been seriously undermined and disciplinary variations are acknowledged (Hyland, 2000). With the growth of interdisciplinary programmes, understanding the contributions that disciplinary cultures make to the construction, interpretation and use of academic discourses has become a central EAP enterprise. The global growth of English in academic contexts also means that most teachers of EAP around the world are not native-speakers of English, and this has led to changes in EAP materials and teacher training courses. Many MATESOL and other postgraduate courses for teachers now include modules on EAP, for example, and there are a growing number of specialist Master’s degree courses in the area available internationally. There is also increasing realization that EAP spans formal education at every level and more attention is now being given to EAP in early schooling years and to postgraduate thesis writing and dissertation supervision (Braine, 2002). Nor should we see EAP courses as exclusively directed at non-native English-speakers. Growing numbers of L1 English-speakers who enter higher education without a background in academic communication skills have made EAP a critical aspect of their learning experiences. 4 Introduction