HALTEN and BEtRaCHtEn. a similar approach was used by Groom(2007)in order to analyze semantic sequences of salient grammatical words Table 2. Valency pattern d istribution in four samples(of 50 concordance lines each)of CONSIDER with the most frequent TEs HALTEN and BETRACHTEN halten halten 2 halten 3 haltenaHALTEN betrach-betrach-betrach- betrach- sub obi nom sub obi ad Isub obj nom-as sub obj vb-to-be-nom 当吗吗 0.25 sub it nom vb-that sub it adjvb-that sub it nom vb-to-inf sub it adi vb-to-in TOTAL In the final step of the investigation the syntactic valency patterns of the German TEs were compared with the patterns of CONSIDER It is believed that the approach taken is sufficiently reliable to identify trends regarding the interplay of local grammar and word meaning, i.e. TEs. However, this investigation does not claim to be exhaustive, but attempts to provide an overview of the key principles in contrastive linguistic research using valency theory and corpus 2. Valency complements in contrastive linguistics Valency does not relate to general properties of words but to specific subclasses of words. For example, in English a distinction is often made between subclasses of verbs ypically followed by an -ing or a to-inf-form, while German distinguishes between verbs typically followed by a sentence element in the accusative case and those typically followed by a dative ( Table 3, example sentences 6 to 9) Table 3. Examples of subclasses of verb valency in English and German Example rb Example sentence (6-E)The European Parliament should consider (function: object) fundamental change in attitude in this area (6-G) Das Europaische Parlament muB in Betracht ziehen, an einer solchen prinzipiellen Veranderung mitzuwirken to-infinitive form need (-E) Cohesion policy needs to be strengthened (7-G) Die Kohasionspolitik muB weiter gestarkt
6 HALTEN and BETRACHTEN. A similar approach was used by Groom (2007) in order to analyze semantic sequences of salient grammatical words. Table 2. Valency pattern distribution in four samples (of 50 concordance lines each) of CONSIDER with the most frequent TEs HALTEN and BETRACHTEN In the final step of the investigation the syntactic valency patterns of the German TEs were compared with the patterns of CONSIDER. It is believed that the approach taken is sufficiently reliable to identify trends regarding the interplay of local grammar and word meaning, i.e. TEs. However, this investigation does not claim to be exhaustive, but attempts to provide an overview of the key principles in contrastive linguistic research using valency theory and corpus investigation. 2. Valency complements in contrastive linguistics Valency does not relate to general properties of words but to specific subclasses of words. For example, in English a distinction is often made between subclasses of verbs typically followed by an -ing or a to-inf-form, while German distinguishes between verbs typically followed by a sentence element in the accusative case and those typically followed by a dative (Table 3, example sentences 6 to 9). Table 3. Examples of subclasses of verb valency in English and German English Example verb Example sentence -ing form (function: object) consider (6-E) The European Parliament should consider contributing to the introduction of a fundamental change in attitude in this area. (6-G) Das Europäische Parlament muß in Betracht ziehen, an einer solchen prinzipiellen Veränderung mitzuwirken. to-infinitive form (function: object) need (7-E) Cohesion policy needs to be strengthened further. (7-G) Die Kohäsionspolitik muß weiter gestärkt
wengen Ex German verb Example sentence Accusative halter (8-G)Ich personlich halte ihn fur eine sehr (consider) gefahrliche Person (function: object) (8-E)I personally consider him to be a very dangerous politician Dative helfen (9-G) Die damit verbundenen Stabilitats complement (help) vereinbarungen helfen dem EurosproBling sich (function: object) klar nach vorne blickend zu entfalten (9-E)The stabil ity pacts will help the young euro to develop with a clear eye on the future As can be seen in Table 3 different forms fulfil the same function; viz. that of object (Quirk et al. 1985). 3] Sub-classification of realisation forms, as shown in Table 4 example sentence 10, helps to show the link between function and form between languages. The English ing-complementation functioning as object can be labelled <obj-ing>. Its German counterpart is realised in German with a wh-clause which also functions as object and can be labelled <obj-wh> Table 4 Example analysis of valency complement types for English and German (10-E) We will, howeve conside raising the tog r, matter with the issues concerning Turkish development poli in the framework of pre- accession strategy Valenc <sub adjunct <obi-ing> adjunct (10-G) Wir Werde jedoch profen, inwiefern wir we Probleme Angelegenheit Zusammen regionalen Entwicklungspolitik im Rahme nsprechen neue wengen Heranfuhrungsstrate den turkish Beholden
7 werden. German Example verb Example sentence Accusative complement (function: object) halten (consider) (8-G) Ich persönlich halte ihn für eine sehr gefährliche Person. (8-E) I personally consider him to be a very dangerous politician. Dative complement (function: object) helfen (help) (9-G) Die damit verbundenen Stabilitätsvereinbarungen helfen dem Eurosprößling sich klar nach vorne blickend zu entfalten. (9-E) The stability pacts will help the young euro to develop with a clear eye on the future. As can be seen in Table 3 different forms fulfil the same function; viz. that of object (Quirk et al. 1985). [3] Sub-classification of realisation forms, as shown in Table 4 example sentence 10, helps to show the link between function and form between languages. The English ing-complementation functioning as object can be labelled <obj-ing>. Its German counterpart is realised in German with a wh-clause which also functions as object and can be labelled <obj-wh>. Table 4. Example analysis of valency complement types for English and German (10-E) We will, howeve r, conside r raising the matter with the Turkish authorities, together with other issues concerning regional development policies in the framework of the new preaccession strategy for Turkey. Valenc y <sub > adjunct <obj-ing> adjunct (10-G) Wir Werde n jedoch prüfen, inwiefern wir diese Angelegenheit ... ... ansprechen werden. ... sowie weitere Probleme im Zusammenhang mit der regionalen Entwicklungspolitik im Rahmen der neuen Heranführungsstrate gie bei den türkischen Behörden
Valenc <sub adjunct obj-wh adjunct Differences in the realisation forms, i.e. valency patterns of words, exist between different languages and often make a contrastive analysis difficult. The parameters for the analysis of different languages may vary as language specific characteristics need to be accounted for(Emons 1974). On the other hand, a contrastive analysis needs to be based on homogeneous criteria for the classification of the valency complements (Bianco 1980). It is therefore important to use the same categories or labels for the languages as transparent as possible. That valency theory never experienced a breakthrough in the analysis of English might have to do with the morphologic properties of the language. English has mostly lost the noun-inflections indicating the cases which are generally seen as parameter for the analysis of valency complements ( Polenz 2008) Table 5. Valency complements in German and English(based on Engel 2009 and Fisher 1997) German Englis Case complements <sub> <sub Nominative complement; main Subject complement function: subject <obj Accusative complement; main Object complement function: direct object Genitive complement <dat Dative complement; main functions: Indirect object indirect object or direct object Prepositional <prp <prp> Prepositional complement Prepositional complement Adverbial <sit <sit complements Situational complement Situational complement Directional complement Directional complement
8 Valenc y <sub > adjunct <obj-wh> adjunct Differences in the realisation forms, i.e. valency patterns of words, exist between different languages and often make a contrastive analysis difficult. The parameters for the analysis of different languages may vary as language specific characteristics need to be accounted for (Emons 1974). On the other hand, a contrastive analysis needs to be based on homogeneous criteria for the classification of the valency complements (Bianco 1980). It is therefore important to use the same categories or labels for the classification of valency complements in order to make the comparison between languages as transparent as possible. That valency theory never experienced a breakthrough in the analysis of English might have to do with the morphological properties of the language. English has mostly lost the noun-inflections indicating the cases which are generally seen as parameter for the analysis of valency complements (Polenz 2008). Table 5. Valency complements in German and English (based on Engel 2009 and Fisher 1997) German English Case complements <sub> Nominative complement; main function: subject <sub> Subject complement <obj> Accusative complement; main function: direct object <obj> Object complement <gen> Genitive complement --- <dat> Dative complement; main functions: indirect object or direct object <ind> Indirect object Prepositional complements <prp> Prepositional complement <prp> Prepositional complement Adverbial complements <sit> Situational complement <sit> Situational complement <dir> Directional complement <dir> Directional complement <exp> <exp>