CONTENTS About the Authors。。··。·。··。··。·。xvi Acknowledgment。···· ●。●●。。●。●。。●XX Preface to the First Edition······· Preface to the Second Edition。。···。······e ···◆xxii CHAPTER I Introduction to Mineralogy·····, 1 Mineral Constituents of Rocks-A Review,2 Igneous Rocks,7 Metamorphic Rocks,9 Sedimentary Rocks,10 Properties of Sedimentary Particles,14 Development and Use of Petrophysics,20 Objectives and Organization,22 Problems,24 Glossary (Chapter 1),24 References,26 CHAPTER2 Introduction to Petroleum Geology·。,··。。。·。。。。,·29 Review of Composition of the Globe,29 Crust,31 Plate Tectonics,32 Geologic Time,34 Sedimentary Geology.37 Basins,37 Divergent Continental Margins,38 Convergent Continental Margins,39 Transform Continental Margins,39 Transgressive-Regressive Cycles,39 vii
CONTENTS ... AbouttheAuthors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .XXIII Units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv ... CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Mineralogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Mineral Constituents of Rocks-A Review, 2 Igneous Rocks, 7 Metamorphic Rocks, 9 Sedimentary Rocks, 10 Properties of Sedimentary Particles, 14 Development and Use of Petrophysics, 20 Objectives and Organization, 22 Problems, 24 Glossary (Chapter I), 24 References, 26 CHAPTER 2 Introduction to Petroleum Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Review of Composition of the Globe, 29 Crust, 31 Plate Tectonics, 32 Geologic Time, 34 Basins, 37 Divergent Continental Margins, 38 Convergent Continental Margins, 39 Transform Continental Margins, 39 Transgressive-Regressive Cycles, 39 Sedimentary Geology, 37 vii
Accumulation of Sediments,40 Hydrocarbon Traps,44 Origin of Petroleum,46 Transformation of Organics Into Kerogen,47 Transformation of Kerogen Into Oil and Gas,48 Migration and Accumulation of Petroleum,49 Primary Migration,50 Secondary Migration,51 Properties of Subsurface Fluids,53 Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient,54 Lithostatic Pressure Gradient,54 Geothermal Gradient,55 Oilfield Waters,58 Petroleum,65 Petroleum Chemistry,71 Problems,81 Nomenclature,83 Greek Symbols,84 Subscripts,84 References,85 CHAPTER3 Porosity and Permeability。。。··。。。·····。 87 Porosity,88 Factors Governing the Magnitude of Porosity,89 Engineering Classification of Porosity,91 Geological Classification of Porosity,91 Visual Description of Porosity in Carbonate Rocks,94 Fluid Saturation,96 Quantitative Use of Porosity,97 Permeability,100 Classification of Permeability,101 Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Permeability,102 Permeability-Porosity Relationships,105 Kozeny Correlation,106 Concept of Flow Units,112 Mathematical Theory of Flow Units,114 Specific Surface Area,116 Flow Unit Characterization Factors,120 Effect of Packing on Permeability,130 Effect of Water Saturation on Permeability,132 Permeability from NMR Log,134 Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Carbonate Rocks,136 Directional Permeability,147 Reservoir Heterogeneity,159 Distribution of Rock Properties,162 Permeability and Porosity Distributions,163 viii
Accumulation of Sediments, 40 Hydrocarbon Traps, 44 Transformation of Organics Into Kerogen, 47 Transformation of Kerogen Into Oil and Gas, 48 Primary Migration, 50 Secondary Migration, 51 Properties of Subsurface Fluids, 53 Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient, 54 Lithostatic Pressure Gradient, 54 Geothermal Gradient, 55 Oilfield Waters, 58 Petroleum, 65 Petroleum Chemistry, 71 Problems, 81 Nomenclature, 83 Greek Symbols, 84 Subscripts, 84 Origin of Petroleum, 46 Migration and Accumulation of Petroleum, 49 References, 85 CHAPTER 3 Porosity and Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Porosity, 88 Factors Governing the Magnitude of Porosity, 89 Engineering Classification of Porosity, 91 Geological Classification of Porosity, 9 1 Visual Description of Porosity in Carbonate Rocks, 94 Fluid Saturation, 96 Quantitative Use of Porosity, 97 Classification of Permeability, 101 Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Permeability, 102 Kozeny Correlation, 106 Concept of Flow Units, 112 Mathematical Theory of Flow Units, 114 Specific Surface Area, 116 Flow Unit Characterization Factors, 120 Effect of Packing on Permeability, 130 Effect of Water Saturation on Permeability, 132 Permeability from NMR Log, 134 Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Carbonate Rocks, 136 Directional Permeability, 147 Reservoir Heterogeneity, 159 Distribution of Rock Properties, 162 Permeability and Porosity Distributions, 163 Permeability, 100 Permeability-Porosity Relationships, 105 viii
Permeability from Well Test Data,180 Statistical Zonation Technique,185 Problems,193 Nomenclature,196 Subscripts,197 Superscripts,198 Greek Symbols,198 References,198 CHAPTER4 Formation Resistivity and Water Saturation。。。。。··。。。203 Formation Resistivity Factor,204 Resistivity Measurement,204 Determination of Formation Water Resistivity,206 Correlation between Fg and Porosity,217 Correlations between Fg and Tortuosity,219 Correlations between Fg and Cementation,221 Theoretical Formula for FR,224 Correlation between Fr and Water Saturation,229 Correlation between Fg and Permeability,239 Resistivity of Shaly (Clayey)Reservoir Rocks,242 Water Saturation in Shaly (Clayey)Reservoir Rocks,243 Approximate Shale Relationship,249 Generalized Shale Relationship,250 Flow Units for Shaly Sandstones,253 Lab-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey)Reservoir Rocks,257 Log-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey)Reservoir Rocks,283 Formation Evaluation,283 Core Analysis,284 Well Log Analysis,285 Problems,301 Nomenclature,305 Subscripts,308 Greek Symbols,308 References,309 CHAPT ER5 Capillary Pressure。。。。·。·。···。。。·。·。·。。·。··313 Capillary Pressure,313 Derivation of the Capillary Pressure Equation,314 Capillary Rise,318 Capillary Pressure J-Function,320 Semipermeable Disk Measurement of Capillary Pressure,322 Measurement of Capillary Pressure by Mercury Injection,324 Centrifuge Measurement of Capillary Pressure,330 Laboratory Procedure,330 Calculation of Centrifuge Capillary Pressure Data,333 ix
Permeability from Well Test Data, 180 Statistical Zonation Technique, 185 Problems, 193 Nomenclature, 196 Subscripts, 197 Superscripts, 198 Greek Symbols, 198 References, 198 CHAPTER 4 Formation Resistivity and Water Saturation . . . . . . . . . . 203 Formation Resistivity Factor, 204 Resistivity Measurement, 204 Determination of Formation Water Resistivity, 206 Correlation between FR and Porosity, 2 17 Correlations between FR and Tortuosity, 2 19 Correlations between FR and Cementation, 221 Theoretical Formula for FR, 224 Correlation between FR and Water Saturation, 229 Correlation between FR and Permeability, 239 Water Saturation in Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks, 243 Approximate Shale Relationship, 249 Generalized Shale Relationship, 250 Resistivity of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks, 242 Flow Units for Shaly Sandstones, 253 Lab-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks, 257 Log-Derived Evaluation of Shaly (Clayey) Reservoir Rocks, 283 Formation Evaluation, 283 Core Analysis, 284 Well Log Analysis, 285 Problems, 301 Nomenclature, 305 Subscripts, 308 Greek Symbols, 308 References, 309 CHAPTER 5 Capillary Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Capillary Pressure, 3 13 Derivation of the Capillary Pressure Equation, 3 14 Capillary Rise, 318 Capillary Pressure J-Function, 320 Semipermeable Disk Measurement of Capillary Pressure, 322 Measurement of Capillary Pressure by Mercury Injection, 324 Centrifuge Measurement of Capillary Pressure, 330 Laboratory Procedure, 330 Calculation of Centrifuge Capillary Pressure Data, 333
Limiting Centrifuge Speed,334 Approximate Calculation of the Inlet Saturation,336 Theoretically Exact Calculation of the Inlet Saturation,338 Pore Size Distribution,342 Vertical Saturation Profile in a Reservoir,346 Capillary Number,352 Problems,355 Nomenclature,356 Greek Symbols,357 References,357 CHAPTER6 Wettability。。。····· 。360 Wettability,360 Interfacial Tension,361 Contact Angle,362 Sessile Drop Measurement of Contact Angles,364 Wilhelmy Plate Measurement of Contact Angles,366 Surface Chemical Properties,367 Evaluation of Wettability,371 Amott Wettability Index,371 USBM Wettability Index,373 Combined Amott-USBM Wettability Test,375 Spontaneous Imbibition Wettability Test,377 Fluid Displacement Energy,378 Water-Oil-Rock Interfacial Activity,382 Effect of Wettability on Oil Recovery,384 Effect of Brine Salinity on Oil Recovery,389 Alteration of Wettability,390 Treatment of the Rock.390 Addition of Fluid-Soluble Compounds to Water and Oil,391 Aging the Oil-Brine-Rock System,394 Effects of Temperature and Pressure,395 Restoration of Original Wettability,397 Effect of Wettability on Electrical Properties,398 Problems,403 Nomenclature,404 Greek Symbols,405 Subscripts,406 References,406 CHAPTER7 Applications of Darcy'saw·。··。·。。。。。。。·。。。。。,415 Darcy's Law,416 Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids,417 Linear Flow of Gas,420 Darcy's and Poiseuille's Laws,424 x
Limiting Centrifuge Speed, 334 Approximate Calculation of the Inlet Saturation, 336 Theoretically Exact Calculation of the Inlet Saturation, 338 Pore Size Distribution, 342 Vertical Saturation Profile in a Reservoir, 346 Capillary Number, 352 Problems, 355 Nomenclature, 356 References, 357 Greek Symbols, 357 CHAPTER 6 Wettability, 360 Wettability.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Interfacial Tension, 361 Contact Angle, 362 Sessile Drop Measurement of Contact Angles, 364 Wilhelmy Plate Measurement of Contact Angles, 366 Surface Chemical Properties, 367 Amott Wettability Index, 371 USBM Wettability Index, 373 Combined Amott-USBM Wettability Test, 375 Spontaneous Imbibition Wettability Test, 377 Fluid Displacement Energy, 378 Effect of Wettability on Oil Recovery, 384 Effect of Brine Salinity on Oil Recovery, 389 Treatment of the Rock, 390 Addition of Fluid-Soluble Compounds to Water and Oil, 391 Aging the Oil-Brine-Rock System, 394 Effects of Temperature and Pressure, 395 Restoration of Original Wettability, 397 Efect of Wettability on Electrical Properties, 398 Problems, 403 Nomenclature, 404 Greek Symbols, 405 Subscripts, 406 Evaluation of Wettability, 371 Waterail-Rock Interfacial Activity, 382 Alteration of Wettability, 390 References, 406 CHAPTER 7 Applications of Darcy’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415 Darcy’s Law, 416 Linear Flow of Incompressible Fluids, 4 17 Linear Flow of Gas, 420 Darcy’s and Poiseuille’s Laws, 424 X
Linear Flow through Fractures and Channels,425 Flow through Fractures,426 Flow through Solution Channels,431 Radial Flow Systems,434 Steady-state Flow,435 Pseudosteady-state Flow,437 Radial Laminar Flow of Gas,447 Turbulent Flow of Gas,452 Linear Turbulent Flow,452 Friction Factor of Porous Rocks,459 Turbulent Radial Flow,466 Multiple-Permeability Rocks,469 Layered Reservoirs with Crossflow,469 Layered Reservoirs without Crossflow,470 Composite reservoirs,474 Problems.479 Nomenclature,483 Greek Symbols,484 References,484 CHAPTER8 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。488 Introduction,488 Origin of Permeability in Carbonate Rocks,490 Geological Classifications of Natural Fractures,490 Engineering Classification of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,492 Indicators of Natural Fractures,495 Visual Identification of Fractures,500 Petrophysical Properties of Naturally Fractured Rocks,500 Fracture Porosity Determination,502 Porosity Partitioning Coefficient,506 Fracture Intensity Index,511 Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Double Porosity Systems,515 Porosity and Permeability Relationships in Type 1 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,518 Fractures Porosity and Aperture from Cores,520 Specific Area of Fractures,524 Effect of Fracture Shape,526 Hydraulic Radius of Fractures,527 Type 2 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,529 Fluid Flow Modeling in Fractures,531 Fracture Area,531 Fracture Storage Capacity,532 Fracture Conductivity,533 Characterizing Natural Fractures from Well Test Data,534 Problems,548 xi
Linear Flow through Fractures and Channels, 425 Flow through Fractures, 426 Flow through Solution Channels, 43 1 Steady-state Flow, 435 Pseudosteady-state Flow, 437 Radial Laminar Flow of Gas, 447 Turbulent Flow of Gas, 452 Linear Turbulent Flow, 452 Friction Factor of Porous Rocks, 459 Turbulent Radial Flow, 466 Layered Reservoirs with Crossflow, 469 Layered Reservoirs without Crossflow, 470 Composite reservoirs, 474 Radial Flow Systems, 434 Multiple-Permeability Rocks, 469 Problems, 479 Nomenclature, 483 References, 484 Greek Symbols, 484 CHAPTER 8 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Introduction, 488 Origin of Permeability in Carbonate Rocks, 490 Geological Classifications of Natural Fractures, 490 Engineering Classification of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, 492 Indicators of Natural Fractures, 495 Visual Identification of Fractures, 500 Petrophysical Properties of Naturally Fractured Rocks, 500 Fracture Porosity Determination, 502 Porosity Partitioning Coefficient, 506 Fracture Intensity Index, 51 1 Permeability-Porosity Relationships in Double Porosity Systems, 515 Porosity and Permeability Relationships in Type 1 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, 518 Fractures Porosity and Aperture from Cores, 520 Specific Area of Fractures, 524 Effect of Fracture Shape, 526 Hydraulic Radius of Fractures, 527 Type 2 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, 529 Fracture Area, 531 Fracture Storage Capacity, 532 Fracture Conductivity, 533 Fluid Flow Modeling in Fractures, 531 Characterizing Natural Fractures from Well Test Data, 534 Problems, 548 xi