上海交通大学：《生物与机器人学》课程教学资源_Humanoid

1307 Humanc us 56,Humanoids Charles C.Kemp,Paul Fitzpatrick,Hirohisa Hirukawa,Kazuhito Yokoi,Kensuke Harada, Yoshio Matsumoto Humanoid robots selectively emulate aspects of 56.2 History and overview...........................1310 human form and behavior.Humanoids come 56.2.1 Different Forms...... 1311 56.2.2 Different Degrees of Freedom ...1311 in a variety of shapes and sizes,from complete 56.2.3 Different Sensors. 1311 human-size legged robots to isolated robotic heads 56.2.4 Other Dimensions of Variation......1312 with human-like sensing and expression.This chapter highlights significant humanoid platforms 56.3L0c0m0ti0n…….1312 56.3.1 Bipedal Locomotion. 1312 and achievements,and discusses some of the 56.3.2 Falling Down............... .1313 underlying goals behind this area of robotics. 56.3.3 Sensing for Balance............ .1314 Humanoids tend to require the integration of 56.3.4 Localization and Obstacle many of the methods covered in detail within Detection.... ..1314 other chapters of this handbook,so this chapter focuses on distinctive aspects of humanoid robotics 56.4 Manipulation..................... 1315 56.4.1 The Arm and Hand 1315 with liberal cross-referencing. 56.4.2 Sensing for Manipulation 1316 This chapter examines what motivates re- 56.4.3 Rhythmic Manipulation ..............1317 searchers to pursue humanoid robotics,and 56.4.4 Cooperative Manipulation 1317 provides a taste of the evolution of this field over 56.4.5 Learning and Development .1318 time.It summarizes work on legged humanoid 56.5 Whole-Body Activities....... .1318 locomotion,humanoid manipulation,whole-body 56.5.1 Coarse Whole-Body Motion 1319 activities,and approaches to human-robot com- 56.5.2 Generating Dynamically Stable munication.It concludes with a brief discussion of Motions..1321 factors that may influence the future of humanoid 56.5.3 Generating Whole-Body Motions robots. from Operational Point Motions....1322 56.5.4 Generating Motions 56.1 Why Humanoids?................. ..1307 when in Contact with an Object....1324 56.1.1 The Human Example ,1308 56.6 Communication.... ...1325 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror. .1308 56.6.1 Expressive Morphology 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence..........1308 and Behavior.................1325 56.1.4 Interfacing 56.6.2 Interpreting Human Expression.....1327 with the Human World .1308 56.6.3 Alternative Models 56.1.5 Interfacing with People...............1309 for Human-Robot Communication 1329 56.1.6 Entertainment,Culture, 56.7 Conclusions and Further Reading....1329 and Surrogates 1310 References ........... 1329 56.1 Why Humanoids? Throughout history,the human body and mind have Chap.60,Biologically Inspired Robots).These robots inspired artists,engineers,and scientists.The field of usually share similar kinematics to humans,as well as humanoid robotics focuses on the creation of robots similar sensing and behavior.The motivations that have that are directly inspired by human capabilities (see driven the development of humanoid robots vary widely

1307 Humanoids 56. Humanoids Charles C. Kemp, Paul Fitzpatrick, Hirohisa Hirukawa, Kazuhito Yokoi, Kensuke Harada, Yoshio Matsumoto Humanoid robots selectively emulate aspects of human form and behavior. Humanoids come in a variety of shapes and sizes, from complete human-size legged robots to isolated robotic heads with human-like sensing and expression. This chapter highlights significant humanoid platforms and achievements, and discusses some of the underlying goals behind this area of robotics. Humanoids tend to require the integration of many of the methods covered in detail within other chapters of this handbook, so this chapter focuses on distinctive aspects of humanoid robotics with liberal cross-referencing. This chapter examines what motivates re￾searchers to pursue humanoid robotics, and provides a taste of the evolution of this field over time. It summarizes work on legged humanoid locomotion, humanoid manipulation, whole-body activities, and approaches to human–robot com￾munication. It concludes with a brief discussion of factors that may influence the future of humanoid robots. 56.1 Why Humanoids? .................................. 1307 56.1.1 The Human Example.................... 1308 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror...................... 1308 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence .......... 1308 56.1.4 Interfacing with the Human World ................ 1308 56.1.5 Interfacing with People ............... 1309 56.1.6 Entertainment, Culture, and Surrogates ........................... 1310 56.2 History and Overview ............................ 1310 56.2.1 Different Forms ........................... 1311 56.2.2 Different Degrees of Freedom ....... 1311 56.2.3 Different Sensors ......................... 1311 56.2.4 Other Dimensions of Variation ...... 1312 56.3 Locomotion.......................................... 1312 56.3.1 Bipedal Locomotion..................... 1312 56.3.2 Falling Down .............................. 1313 56.3.3 Sensing for Balance ..................... 1314 56.3.4 Localization and Obstacle Detection ................................... 1314 56.4 Manipulation ....................................... 1315 56.4.1 The Arm and Hand ...................... 1315 56.4.2 Sensing for Manipulation ............. 1316 56.4.3 Rhythmic Manipulation ............... 1317 56.4.4 Cooperative Manipulation ............ 1317 56.4.5 Learning and Development .......... 1318 56.5 Whole-Body Activities ........................... 1318 56.5.1 Coarse Whole-Body Motion .......... 1319 56.5.2 Generating Dynamically Stable Motions ..................................... 1321 56.5.3 Generating Whole-Body Motions from Operational Point Motions .... 1322 56.5.4 Generating Motions when in Contact with an Object .... 1324 56.6 Communication .................................... 1325 56.6.1 Expressive Morphology and Behavior.............................. 1325 56.6.2 Interpreting Human Expression..... 1327 56.6.3 Alternative Models for Human–Robot Communication 1329 56.7 Conclusions and Further Reading ........... 1329 References .................................................. 1329 56.1 Why Humanoids? Throughout history, the human body and mind have inspired artists, engineers, and scientists. The field of humanoid robotics focuses on the creation of robots that are directly inspired by human capabilities (see Chap. 60, Biologically Inspired Robots). These robots usually share similar kinematics to humans, as well as similar sensing and behavior. The motivations that have driven the development of humanoid robots vary widely. Part G 56

1308 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics ence fiction play Rossum's Universal Robots(R.U.R.) Part For example,humanoid robots have been developed as general-purpose mechanical workers,as entertain- is centered around the story of artificial people created G156. ers,and as test-beds for theories from neuroscience and in a factory [56.9].This play from 1920 is widely be- experimental psychology [56.1-3]. lieved to have popularized the term robot.Many other works have included explicit representations of hu- 56.1.1 The Human Example manoid robots,such as the robot Maria in Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis [56.10],and the thoughtful por- On a daily basis,humans perform important tasks that trayal of humanoid robotics by Isaac Asimov in works are well beyond the capabilities of current robots.More- such as The Caves of Steel from 1954 [56.11].The long over,humans are generalists with the ability to perform history of humanoid robots in science fiction has influ- a wide variety of distinct tasks.Roboticists would like enced generations of researchers,as well as the general to create robots with comparable versatility and skill. public,and serves as further evidence that people are When automating a task that people perform,it is natu- drawn to the idea of humanoid robots. ral to consider the physical and intellectual mechanisms that enable a person to perform the task.Exactly what to 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence borrow from the human example is controversial.The Many researchers in the humanoid robotics commu- literal-minded approach of creating humanoid robots nity see humanoid robots as a tool with which to better may not be the best way to achieve some human-like capabilities(see Chap.54,Domestic Robots).For exam- understand humans [56.3,12].Humanoid robots offer an ple,dishwashing machines bear little similarity to the avenue to test understanding through construction(syn- manual dishwashing they replace. thesis),and thereby complement the careful analysis provided by researchers in disciplines such as cognitive 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror science. Researchers have sought to better emulate human in- Humans are humanity's favorite subject.A quick look at telligence using humanoid robotics [56.13].Scientists, popular magazines,videos,and books should be enough developmental psychologists,and linguists have found to convince any alien observer that humanity is obsessed strong links between the human body and human cog- with itself.The nature of this obsession is not fully un- nition [56.14].By being embodied in a manner similar to humans,and situated within human environments, derstood,but aspects of it have influenced the field of humanoid robots may be able to exploit similar mech- humanoid robotics. anisms for artificial intelligence (AI).Researchers are Humans are social animals that generally like to ob- serve and interact with one another [56.4].Moreover, also attempting to find methods that will enable robots people are highly attuned to human characteristics,such to develop autonomously in a manner akin to human in- as the sound of human voices and the appearance of fants [56.15].Some of these researchers use humanoid human faces and body motion [56.5-7].Infants show robots that can physically explore the world in a manner preferences for these types of stimuli at a very young age, similar to humans [56.16]. and adults appear to use specialized mental resources 56.1.4 Interfacing with the Human World when interpreting these stimuli.By mimicking human characteristics,humanoid robots can engage these same Environments built for humans have been designed to ac- preferences and mental resources. commodate human form and behavior [56.17,18].Many Humanity's narcissism has been reflected in media important everyday objects fit in a person's hand and are as diverse as cave paintings,sculpture,mechanical toys,light enough to be transported conveniently by a per- photographs,and computer animation.Artists have con-son.Human tools match human dexterity.Doors tend sistently attempted to portray people with the latest tools to be a convenient size for people to walk through.Ta- at their disposal.Robotics serves as a powerful new bles and desks are at a height that is well matched to medium that enables the creation of artifacts that oper- the human body and senses.Humanoid robots can po- ate within the real world and exhibit both human form tentially take advantage of these same accommodations, and behavior [56.8]. thereby simplifying tasks and avoiding the need to al- Popular works of fiction have frequently included ter the environment for the robot [56.19].For example, influential portrayals of humanoid robots and manmade humanoid robots and people could potentially collabo- humanoid creatures.For example,Karel Capek's sci- rate with one another in the same space using the same

1308 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics For example, humanoid robots have been developed as general-purpose mechanical workers, as entertain￾ers, and as test-beds for theories from neuroscience and experimental psychology [56.1–3]. 56.1.1 The Human Example On a daily basis, humans perform important tasks that are well beyond the capabilities of current robots. More￾over, humans are generalists with the ability to perform a wide variety of distinct tasks. Roboticists would like to create robots with comparable versatility and skill. When automating a task that people perform, it is natu￾ral to consider the physical and intellectual mechanisms that enable a person to perform the task. Exactly what to borrow from the human example is controversial. The literal-minded approach of creating humanoid robots may not be the best way to achieve some human-like capabilities (see Chap. 54, Domestic Robots). For exam￾ple, dishwashing machines bear little similarity to the manual dishwashing they replace. 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror Humans are humanity’s favorite subject. A quick look at popular magazines, videos, and books should be enough to convince any alien observer that humanity is obsessed with itself. The nature of this obsession is not fully un￾derstood, but aspects of it have influenced the field of humanoid robotics. Humans are social animals that generally like to ob￾serve and interact with one another [56.4]. Moreover, people are highly attuned to human characteristics, such as the sound of human voices and the appearance of human faces and body motion [56.5–7]. Infants show preferences for these types of stimuli at a very young age, and adults appear to use specialized mental resources when interpreting these stimuli. By mimicking human characteristics, humanoid robots can engage these same preferences and mental resources. Humanity’s narcissism has been reflected in media as diverse as cave paintings, sculpture, mechanical toys, photographs, and computer animation. Artists have con￾sistently attempted to portray people with the latest tools at their disposal. Robotics serves as a powerful new medium that enables the creation of artifacts that oper￾ate within the real world and exhibit both human form and behavior [56.8]. Popular works of fiction have frequently included influential portrayals of humanoid robots and manmade humanoid creatures. For example, Karel Capek’s sci- ˘ ence fiction play Rossum’s Universal Robots (R.U.R.) is centered around the story of artificial people created in a factory [56.9]. This play from 1920 is widely be￾lieved to have popularized the term robot. Many other works have included explicit representations of hu￾manoid robots, such as the robot Maria in Fritz Lang’s 1927 film Metropolis [56.10], and the thoughtful por￾trayal of humanoid robotics by Isaac Asimov in works such as The Caves of Steel from 1954 [56.11]. The long history of humanoid robots in science fiction has influ￾enced generations of researchers, as well as the general public, and serves as further evidence that people are drawn to the idea of humanoid robots. 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence Many researchers in the humanoid robotics commu￾nity see humanoid robots as a tool with which to better understand humans [56.3,12]. Humanoid robots offer an avenue to test understanding through construction (syn￾thesis), and thereby complement the careful analysis provided by researchers in disciplines such as cognitive science. Researchers have sought to better emulate human in￾telligence using humanoid robotics [56.13]. Scientists, developmental psychologists, and linguists have found strong links between the human body and human cog￾nition [56.14]. By being embodied in a manner similar to humans, and situated within human environments, humanoid robots may be able to exploit similar mech￾anisms for artificial intelligence (AI). Researchers are also attempting to find methods that will enable robots to develop autonomously in a manner akin to human in￾fants [56.15]. Some of these researchers use humanoid robots that can physically explore the world in a manner similar to humans [56.16]. 56.1.4 Interfacing with the Human World Environments built for humans have been designed to ac￾commodate human form and behavior [56.17,18]. Many important everyday objects fit in a person’s hand and are light enough to be transported conveniently by a per￾son. Human tools match human dexterity. Doors tend to be a convenient size for people to walk through. Ta￾bles and desks are at a height that is well matched to the human body and senses. Humanoid robots can po￾tentially take advantage of these same accommodations, thereby simplifying tasks and avoiding the need to al￾ter the environment for the robot [56.19]. For example, humanoid robots and people could potentially collabo￾rate with one another in the same space using the same Part G 56.1

Humanoids 56.1 Why Humanoids? 1309 Part G56. Fig.56.3 The humanoid robot HRP-2 dancing with a human [56.22]. The human is a master of a traditional Japanese dance whose danc- Fig.56.1 The humanoid robot HRP-IS driving a backhoe ing was recorded by a motion-capture system,and transformed for (Courtesy of Kawasaki Heavy Industries,Tokyu Construc- use by the robot tion and AIST).The robot can be teleoperated by a human operator to control the backhoe remotely.The same robot change its posture in order to lean into something, could potentially interface with many different unmodified pull with the weight of its body,or crawl under an machines obstacle [56.24,251. tools [56.20].Humanoid robots can also interface with 56.1.5 Interfacing with People machinery that does not include drive-by-wire controls, as shown by the teleoperated robot in the cockpit of People are accustomed to working with other people. a backhoe in Fig.56.1 [56.211. Many types of communication rely on human form and Mobility serves as another example.It is very diffi-behavior.Some types of natural gestures and expres- cult to create a tall wheeled robot with a small footprint sion involve subtle movements in the hands and face that is capable of traversing stairs and moving over (Chap.58,Social Robots that Interact with People).Peo- rough terrain.Robots with legs and human-like behav- ple can interpret eye gaze and facial expressions without ior could potentially traverse the same environments training.Humanoid robots can potentially simplify and that humans traverse,such as the industrial plant shown enhance human-robot interaction by taking advantage of in Fig.56.2,which has stairs and handrails designed the communications channels that already exist between for human use [56.23].In addition to mobility advan-people. tages,legs have the potential to help in other ways. Similarly,people already have the ability to per- For example,legs could enable a humanoid robot to form many desirable tasks.This task knowledge may Fig.56.2 HRP-1 operating in a mockup of an industrial Fig.56.4 Actroid (Courtesy of Kokoro),an android de- plant(Courtesy of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) signed for entertainment,telepresence,and media roles

Humanoids 56.1 Why Humanoids? 1309 Fig. 56.1 The humanoid robot HRP-1S driving a backhoe (Courtesy of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Tokyu Construc￾tion and AIST). The robot can be teleoperated by a human operator to control the backhoe remotely. The same robot could potentially interface with many different unmodified machines tools [56.20]. Humanoid robots can also interface with machinery that does not include drive-by-wire controls, as shown by the teleoperated robot in the cockpit of a backhoe in Fig. 56.1 [56.21]. Mobility serves as another example. It is very diffi- cult to create a tall wheeled robot with a small footprint that is capable of traversing stairs and moving over rough terrain. Robots with legs and human-like behav￾ior could potentially traverse the same environments that humans traverse, such as the industrial plant shown in Fig. 56.2, which has stairs and handrails designed for human use [56.23]. In addition to mobility advan￾tages, legs have the potential to help in other ways. For example, legs could enable a humanoid robot to Fig. 56.2 HRP-1 operating in a mockup of an industrial plant (Courtesy of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries) Fig. 56.3 The humanoid robot HRP-2 dancing with a human [56.22]. The human is a master of a traditional Japanese dance whose danc￾ing was recorded by a motion-capture system, and transformed for use by the robot change its posture in order to lean into something, pull with the weight of its body, or crawl under an obstacle [56.24, 25]. 56.1.5 Interfacing with People People are accustomed to working with other people. Many types of communication rely on human form and behavior. Some types of natural gestures and expres￾sion involve subtle movements in the hands and face (Chap. 58, Social Robots that Interact with People). Peo￾ple can interpret eye gaze and facial expressions without training. Humanoid robots can potentially simplify and enhance human–robot interaction by taking advantage of the communications channels that already exist between people. Similarly, people already have the ability to per￾form many desirable tasks. This task knowledge may Fig. 56.4 Actroid (Courtesy of Kokoro), an android de￾signed for entertainment, telepresence, and media roles Part G 56.1

1310 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics be more readily transferred to humanoid robots than to sembles a human,see Fig.56.4.For a humanoid robot Part G156 a robot with a drastically different body.This is espe- to be an improvement over a wax figure or an anima- cially true of cultural actions centered around the human tronic historical character,it must be realistic in form form (Fig.56.3). and function. People may one day wish to have robots that can 56.1.6 Entertainment,Culture, serve as an avatar for telepresence,model clothing,test and Surrogates ergonomics,or serve other surrogate roles that funda- mentally depend on the robot's similarity to a person. Humanoid robots are inherently appropriate for some Along these lines,robotic prosthetics have a close rela- applications.For example,many potential forms of en- tionship to humanoid robotics,since they seek to directly tertainment,such as theater,theme parks,and adult replace parts of the human body in form and function companionship,would rely on a robot that closely re- (Chap.53,Health Care and Rehabilitation Robotics). 56.2 History and Overview There is a long history of mechanical systems with and in Japan there is a tradition of creating mechanical human form that perform human-like movements.For dolls called Karakuri ningyo that dates back to at least example,Al-Jazari designed a humanoid automaton in the 18th century [56.29].In the 20th century,animatron- the 13th century [56.27],Leonardo da Vinci designed ics became an attraction at theme parks.For example, a humanoid automaton in the late 15th century [56.28], in 1967 Disneyland opened its Pirate's of the Caribbean ride [56.30],which featured animatronic pirates that play back human-like movements synchronized with audio. Although programmable,these humanoid animatronic systems moved in a fixed open-loop fashion without sensing their environment. In the second half of the 20th century,advances in digital computing enabled researchers to incorporate significant computation into their robots for sensing, control,and actuation.Many roboticists developed iso- lated systems for sensing.,locomotion,and manipulation that were inspired by human capabilities.However,the first humanoid robot to integrate all of these functions and capture widespread attention was WABOT-1,devel- oped by Ichiro Kato et al.at Waseda University in Japan Fig.56.5 WABOT-1(1973)and WABOT-2(1984)(Cour- in1973Fig.56.5). tesy of Humanoid Robotics Institute,Waseda University) The WABOT robots integrated functions that have been under constant elaboration since:visual object recognition,speech generation,speech recognition, bimanual object manipulation,and bipedal walking. WABOT-2's ability to play a piano,publicized at the Tsukuba Science Expo in 1985,stimulated significant public interest. In 1986,Honda began a confidential project to create a humanoid biped.Honda grew interested in humanoids, perhaps seeing in them devices of complexity compar- able to cars with the potential to become high-volume consumer products one day.In 1996,Honda unveiled Fig.56.6 Honda P2 (180 cm tall,210kg),P3 (160 cm,130kg),and the Honda Humanoid P2,the result of this confidential Asimo (120 cm,43 kg)[56.26].(Images courtesy of Honda) project.P2 was the first full-scale humanoid capable of

1310 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics be more readily transferred to humanoid robots than to a robot with a drastically different body. This is espe￾cially true of cultural actions centered around the human form (Fig. 56.3). 56.1.6 Entertainment, Culture, and Surrogates Humanoid robots are inherently appropriate for some applications. For example, many potential forms of en￾tertainment, such as theater, theme parks, and adult companionship, would rely on a robot that closely re￾sembles a human, see Fig. 56.4. For a humanoid robot to be an improvement over a wax figure or an anima￾tronic historical character, it must be realistic in form and function. People may one day wish to have robots that can serve as an avatar for telepresence, model clothing, test ergonomics, or serve other surrogate roles that funda￾mentally depend on the robot’s similarity to a person. Along these lines, robotic prosthetics have a close rela￾tionship to humanoid robotics, since they seek to directly replace parts of the human body in form and function (Chap. 53, Health Care and Rehabilitation Robotics). 56.2 History and Overview There is a long history of mechanical systems with human form that perform human-like movements. For example, Al-Jazari designed a humanoid automaton in the 13th century [56.27], Leonardo da Vinci designed a humanoid automaton in the late 15th century [56.28], Fig. 56.5 WABOT-1 (1973) and WABOT-2 (1984) (Cour￾tesy of Humanoid Robotics Institute, Waseda University) Fig. 56.6 Honda P2 (180 cm tall, 210 kg), P3 (160 cm, 130 kg), and Asimo (120 cm, 43 kg) [56.26]. (Images courtesy of Honda) and in Japan there is a tradition of creating mechanical dolls called Karakuri ningyo that dates back to at least the 18th century [56.29]. In the 20th century, animatron￾ics became an attraction at theme parks. For example, in 1967 Disneyland opened its Pirate’s of the Caribbean ride [56.30], which featured animatronic pirates that play back human-like movements synchronized with audio. Although programmable, these humanoid animatronic systems moved in a fixed open-loop fashion without sensing their environment. In the second half of the 20th century, advances in digital computing enabled researchers to incorporate significant computation into their robots for sensing, control, and actuation. Many roboticists developed iso￾lated systems for sensing, locomotion, and manipulation that were inspired by human capabilities. However, the first humanoid robot to integrate all of these functions and capture widespread attention was WABOT-1, devel￾oped by Ichiro Kato et al. at Waseda University in Japan in 1973 (Fig. 56.5). The WABOT robots integrated functions that have been under constant elaboration since: visual object recognition, speech generation, speech recognition, bimanual object manipulation, and bipedal walking. WABOT-2’s ability to play a piano, publicized at the Tsukuba Science Expo in 1985, stimulated significant public interest. In 1986, Honda began a confidential project to create a humanoid biped. Honda grew interested in humanoids, perhaps seeing in them devices of complexity compar￾able to cars with the potential to become high-volume consumer products one day. In 1996, Honda unveiled the Honda Humanoid P2, the result of this confidential project. P2 was the first full-scale humanoid capable of Part G 56.2

Humanoids 56.2 History and Overview 1311 stable bipedal walking with onboard power and process- ing.Successive designs reduced its weight and improved performance (see Fig.56.6).Compared to humanoids built by academic laboratories and small manufacturers, the Honda humanoids were a leap forward in stur- Part G56.2 diness,using specially cast lightweight high-rigidity mechanical links,and harmonic drives with high torque capacity. In parallel with these developments,the decade- long Cog project began in 1993 at the MIT Artificial Intelligence laboratory in the USA with the intention of creating a humanoid robot that would,learn to think'by building on its bodily experiences to accom- plish progressively more abstract tasks [56.13].This project gave rise to an upper-body humanoid robot Fig.56.8 The NASA Robonaut consists of an upper body whose design was heavily inspired by the biological placed on a wheeled mobile base and cognitive sciences.Since the inception of the Cog project,many humanoid robotics projects with similar ety of humanoid robots that selectively emphasize some objectives have been initiated,and communities focused human characteristics,while deviating from others on developmental robotics,autonomous mental devel- One of the most noticeable axes of variation in hu- opment (AMD [56.31]),and epigenetic robotics have manoid robots is the presence or absence of body parts. emerged [56.32]. Some humanoid robots have focused solely on the head As of the early 21st century,many companies andand face,others have a head with two arms mounted to academic researchers have become involved with hu-a stationary torso,or a torso with wheels(see,for ex- manoid robots,and there are numerous humanoid robots ample,Fig.56.8),and still others have an articulate and across the world with distinctive features. expressive face with arms,legs,and a torso.Clearly,this variation in form impacts the ways in which the robot can 56.2.1 Different Forms be used,especially in terms of mobility,manipulation, whole-body activities.and human-robot interaction. Today,humanoid robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes that emulate different aspects of human form and 56.2.2 Different Degrees of Freedom behavior(Fig.56.7).As discussed,the motivations that have driven the development of humanoid robots vary Humanoid robots also tend to emulate some degrees widely.These diverse motivations have lead to a vari- of freedom in the human body,while ignoring others. Humanoid robots focusing on facial expressivity often incorporate actuated degrees of freedom in the face to generate facial expressions akin to those that humans can generate with their facial muscles.Likewise,the upper body of humanoid robots usually includes two arms,each with a one-degree-of-freedom (one-DOF) rotary joint at the elbow and a three-DOF rotary joint for the shoulder,but rarely attempt to emulate the human shoulder's ability to translate or the flexibility of the human spine [56.33,341. In general,humanoid robots tend to have a large number of degrees of freedom and a kinematic structure that may not be amenable to closed-form analysis due to redundancy and the lack of a closed-form inverse.This is in contrast to traditional industrial manipulators that Fig.56.7 Kismet is an example of a humanoid head for are often engineered to have minimal redundancy (six social interaction DOFs)and more easily analyzed kinematic structures

Humanoids 56.2 History and Overview 1311 stable bipedal walking with onboard power and process￾ing. Successive designs reduced its weight and improved performance (see Fig. 56.6). Compared to humanoids built by academic laboratories and small manufacturers, the Honda humanoids were a leap forward in stur￾diness, using specially cast lightweight high-rigidity mechanical links, and harmonic drives with high torque capacity. In parallel with these developments, the decade￾long Cog project began in 1993 at the MIT Artificial Intelligence laboratory in the USA with the intention of creating a humanoid robot that would, learn to ‘think’ by building on its bodily experiences to accom￾plish progressively more abstract tasks [56.13]. This project gave rise to an upper-body humanoid robot whose design was heavily inspired by the biological and cognitive sciences. Since the inception of the Cog project, many humanoid robotics projects with similar objectives have been initiated, and communities focused on developmental robotics, autonomous mental devel￾opment (AMD [56.31]), and epigenetic robotics have emerged [56.32]. As of the early 21st century, many companies and academic researchers have become involved with hu￾manoid robots, and there are numerous humanoid robots across the world with distinctive features. 56.2.1 Different Forms Today, humanoid robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes that emulate different aspects of human form and behavior (Fig. 56.7). As discussed, the motivations that have driven the development of humanoid robots vary widely. These diverse motivations have lead to a vari￾Fig. 56.7 Kismet is an example of a humanoid head for social interaction Fig. 56.8 The NASA Robonaut consists of an upper body placed on a wheeled mobile base ety of humanoid robots that selectively emphasize some human characteristics, while deviating from others. One of the most noticeable axes of variation in hu￾manoid robots is the presence or absence of body parts. Some humanoid robots have focused solely on the head and face, others have a head with two arms mounted to a stationary torso, or a torso with wheels (see, for ex￾ample, Fig. 56.8), and still others have an articulate and expressive face with arms, legs, and a torso. Clearly, this variation in form impacts the ways in which the robot can be used, especially in terms of mobility, manipulation, whole-body activities, and human–robot interaction. 56.2.2 Different Degrees of Freedom Humanoid robots also tend to emulate some degrees of freedom in the human body, while ignoring others. Humanoid robots focusing on facial expressivity often incorporate actuated degrees of freedom in the face to generate facial expressions akin to those that humans can generate with their facial muscles. Likewise, the upper body of humanoid robots usually includes two arms, each with a one-degree-of-freedom (one-DOF) rotary joint at the elbow and a three-DOF rotary joint for the shoulder, but rarely attempt to emulate the human shoulder’s ability to translate or the flexibility of the human spine [56.33, 34]. In general, humanoid robots tend to have a large number of degrees of freedom and a kinematic structure that may not be amenable to closed-form analysis due to redundancy and the lack of a closed-form inverse. This is in contrast to traditional industrial manipulators that are often engineered to have minimal redundancy (six DOFs) and more easily analyzed kinematic structures. Part G 56.2