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《心肺复苏指南》参考资料（英文版）Part 12 Pediatric Advanced Life Support

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Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support contrast to adults, sudden cardiac arrest in children is with other signs and symptoms consistent with inadequate ncommon, and cardiac arrest does not usually result from tissue oxygen delivery a primary cardiac cause. More often it is the terminal event The most common cause of shock is hypovolemia, one of progressive respiratory failure or shock, also called an form of which is hemorrhagic shock. Distributive and cardio- asphyxial arrest. genic shock are seen less often. Learn to integrate the signs of shock because no single sig respiratory Failure confirms the diagnosis. For example Respiratory failure is characterized by inadequate ventilation or oxygenation. Anticipate respiratory failure and possible Capillary refill time alone is not a good indicator of respiratory arrest if you see any of the following circulatory volume, but a capillary refill time of >2 econds is a useful indicator of moderate dehydration An increased respiratory rate, particularly with signs of distress(eg, increased effort, nasal flaring, retractions, or combined with a decreased urine output, absent tears ucous membranes, and a generally ill appearance An inadequate respiratory rate, effort, or chest excursion IIb: LOE 32). It is influenced by ambient temperature,3 lighting, 4 site, and age. (eg, diminished breath sounds, gasping, and cyanosis), especially if mental status is depressed Tachycardia also results from other causes (eg, pain anxiety, fever) Shock Pulses may be bounding in anaphylactic, neurogenic, and Shock results from inadequate blood flow and oxygen deliv ery to meet tissue metabolic demands. Shock progresses over In compensated shock, blood pressure remains normal; it a continuum of severity, from a compensated to a decompn sated state. Attempts to compensate include tachycardia and low in decompensated shock. Hypotension is a systolic blood increased systemic vascular resistance(vasoconstriction)in pressure less than the 5th percentile of normal for age, an effort to maintain cardiac output and blood pressure mely Although decompensation can occur rapidly, it is usually .<60 mm Hg in term neonates(0 to 28 days) preceded by a period of inadequate end-organ perfusion <70 mm Hg in infants(I month to 12 months Signs of compensated shock include <70 mm Hg +(2 X age in years) in children I to 10 years Tachycardia 90 mm Hg in children 210 years of age Cool extremities Prolonged capillary refill (despite warm ambient Airway temperature) Oropharyngeal and Nasopharyngeal Airways Weak peripheral pulses compared with central pulses Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways are adjuncts for Normal blood pressure maintaining an open airway Oropharyngeal airways are used in unconscious victims (ie, with no gag reflex). Select the As compensatory mechanisms fail, signs of inadequate correct size: an oropharyngeal airway that is too small will end-organ perfusion develop. In addition to the above, these not keep the tongue from obstructing the pharynx; one that is too large may obstruct the airway Depressed mental status Nasopharyngeal airways will be better tolerated than oral Decreased urine output airways by patients who are not deeply unconscious. Small Metabolic acidosis nasopharyngeal tubes(for infants) may be easily obstructed Laryngeal Mask Airway Signs of decompensated shock include the signs listed above There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against plus hypotension In the absence of blood pressure measure- the routine use of a laryngeal mask airway(LMA) during ment, decompensated shock is indicated by the nondetectable cardiac arrest( Class Indeterminate). When endotracheal distal pulses with weak central pulses in an infant or child tubation is not possible, the LMA is an acceptable adjunct for experienced providers( Class IIb: LOE 7).5 but it is associated ( Circulation.2005;112:Iv-167v-187.) o 2005 American Heart Association with a higher incidence of complications in young children This special supplement to Circulation is freely available at http://www.circulationaha.org Breathing: Oxygenation and Assisted ventilation For information about the role of ventilation during CPr. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 105.166573 Part 11: " Pediatric Basic Life Sup IV-167

Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support I n contrast to adults, sudden cardiac arrest in children is uncommon, and cardiac arrest does not usually result from a primary cardiac cause.1 More often it is the terminal event of progressive respiratory failure or shock, also called an asphyxial arrest. Respiratory Failure Respiratory failure is characterized by inadequate ventilation or oxygenation. Anticipate respiratory failure and possible respiratory arrest if you see any of the following: ● An increased respiratory rate, particularly with signs of distress (eg, increased effort, nasal flaring, retractions, or grunting) ● An inadequate respiratory rate, effort, or chest excursion (eg, diminished breath sounds, gasping, and cyanosis), especially if mental status is depressed Shock Shock results from inadequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to meet tissue metabolic demands. Shock progresses over a continuum of severity, from a compensated to a decompensated state. Attempts to compensate include tachycardia and increased systemic vascular resistance (vasoconstriction) in an effort to maintain cardiac output and blood pressure. Although decompensation can occur rapidly, it is usually preceded by a period of inadequate end-organ perfusion. Signs of compensated shock include ● Tachycardia ● Cool extremities ● Prolonged capillary refill (despite warm ambient temperature) ● Weak peripheral pulses compared with central pulses ● Normal blood pressure As compensatory mechanisms fail, signs of inadequate end-organ perfusion develop. In addition to the above, these signs include ● Depressed mental status ● Decreased urine output ● Metabolic acidosis ● Tachypnea ● Weak central pulses Signs of decompensated shock include the signs listed above plus hypotension. In the absence of blood pressure measurement, decompensated shock is indicated by the nondetectable distal pulses with weak central pulses in an infant or child with other signs and symptoms consistent with inadequate tissue oxygen delivery. The most common cause of shock is hypovolemia, one form of which is hemorrhagic shock. Distributive and cardiogenic shock are seen less often. Learn to integrate the signs of shock because no single sign confirms the diagnosis. For example: ● Capillary refill time alone is not a good indicator of circulatory volume, but a capillary refill time of 2 seconds is a useful indicator of moderate dehydration when combined with a decreased urine output, absent tears, dry mucous membranes, and a generally ill appearance (Class IIb; LOE 32). It is influenced by ambient temperature,3 lighting,4 site, and age. ● Tachycardia also results from other causes (eg, pain, anxiety, fever). ● Pulses may be bounding in anaphylactic, neurogenic, and septic shock. In compensated shock, blood pressure remains normal; it is low in decompensated shock. Hypotension is a systolic blood pressure less than the 5th percentile of normal for age, namely: ● 60 mm Hg in term neonates (0 to 28 days) ● 70 mm Hg in infants (1 month to 12 months) ● 70 mm Hg (2 age in years) in children 1 to 10 years ● 90 mm Hg in children 10 years of age Airway Oropharyngeal and Nasopharyngeal Airways Oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal airways are adjuncts for maintaining an open airway. Oropharyngeal airways are used in unconscious victims (ie, with no gag reflex). Select the correct size: an oropharyngeal airway that is too small will not keep the tongue from obstructing the pharynx; one that is too large may obstruct the airway. Nasopharyngeal airways will be better tolerated than oral airways by patients who are not deeply unconscious. Small nasopharyngeal tubes (for infants) may be easily obstructed by secretions. Laryngeal Mask Airway There is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against the routine use of a laryngeal mask airway (LMA) during cardiac arrest (Class Indeterminate). When endotracheal intubation is not possible, the LMA is an acceptable adjunct for experienced providers (Class IIb; LOE 7),5 but it is associated with a higher incidence of complications in young children.6 Breathing: Oxygenation and Assisted Ventilation For information about the role of ventilation during CPR, see Part 11: “Pediatric Basic Life Support.” (Circulation. 2005;112:IV-167-IV-187.) © 2005 American Heart Association. This special supplement to Circulation is freely available at http://www.circulationaha.org DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.166573 IV-167

Circulation December 13. 2005 Oxygen mask-to-face seal while the other compresses the ventilation There are no studies comparing various concentrations of bag. Both rescuers should observe the victims chest to ensure oxygen during resuscitation beyond the perinatal period. Use chest rise 100%o oxygen during resuscitation(Class Indeterminate). Monitor the patient's oxygen level. When the patient is Gastric Inflation Gastric inflation may interfere with effective ventilation 8 and stable, wean the supplementary oxygen if the oxygen satura- tion is maintained cause regurgitation. You can minimize gastric inflation by doing the following Pulse Oximetry If the patient has a perfusing rhythm, monitor oxygen Avoid excessive peak inspiratory pressures (eg, by venti saturation continuously with a pulse oximeter because clini lating slowly and watching chest rise).& To avoid use of al recognition of hypoxemia is not reliable. Pulse oximetry, excessive volume, deliver only the volume needed to however, may be unreliable in a patient with poor peripheral produce visible chest Apply cricoid pressure. You should do so only in an responsive victim. This technique may require an addi- Bag-Mask Ventilation tional(third)rescuer if the cricoid pressure cannot be Bag-mask ventilation can be as effective as ventilation applied by the rescuer who is securing the bag to the through an endotracheal tube for short periods and may be face. Avoid excessive pressure so as not to obstruct the safer. 8-ll In the prehospital setting ventilate and oxygenate trachea infants and children with a bag-mask device, especially if If you intubate the patient, pass a nasogastric or orogastric transport time is short( Class Ila; LOE 18: 30 49.1). Bag- tube after you intubate because a gastric tube interferes mask ventilation requires training and periodic with the gastroesophageal sphincter, allowing possible how to select a correct mask size, open the airway, make a regurgitation. tight seal between mask and face, ventilate, and assess effectiveness of ventilation(see Part 11: "Pediatric Basic Life Ventilation Through an Endotracheal Tube Support”) Endotracheal intubation in infants and children requires special training because the pediatric airway anatomy differs from adult airway anatomy. Success and a low complication Victims of cardiac arrest are frequently overventilated during rate are related to the length of training, supervised experi- resuscitation12-14 Excessive ventilation increases intratho- ence in the operating room and in the field, 23.24 adequate racic pressure and impedes venous return, reducing cardiac ongoing experience, 25 and the use of rapid sequence intuba- output, cerebral tion(RSI).23..27 sive ventilation also causes air trapping and barotrauma in patients with small-airway obstruction and increases the risk Rapid Sequence Intubation of stomach inflation, regurgitation, and aspiration To facilitate emergency intubation and reduce the incidence Minute ventilation is determined by the tidal volume and of complications, skilled, experienced providers may use ventilation rate. Use only the force and tidal volume needed sedatives, neuromuscular blocking agents, and other medica- to make the chest rise visibly. During CPR for the patient tions to rapidly sedate and paralyze the victim. a. Use RSI tracheal combitube [Combitube], LMA)in place, ventilation medications and are proficient in the evaluation and manage rate is determined by the compression-ventilation ratio Pause ment of the pediatric airway. If you use RSI you must have a after 30 compressions (I rescuer)or after 15 compressions(2 secondary plan to manage the airway in the event that you rescuers)to give 2 ventilations with mouth-to-mouth, mouth- cannot achieve intubation to-mask, or bag-mask techniques. Give each breath over I Cuffed Versus Uncuffed Tubes In the in-hospital setting a cuffed endotracheal tube is as safe If an advanced airway is in place during CPR (eg, endo- as an uncuffed tube for infants beyond the newborn period tracheal tube, Combitube, LMA), ventilate at a rate of 8 to 10 and in children. 29-31 In certain circumstances(eg, poor lung times per minute without pausing chest compressions. In the compliance, high airway resistance, or a large glottic air leak) victim with a perfusing rhythm but absent or inadequate a cuffed tube may be preferable provided that attention is paid respiratory effort, give 12 to 20 breaths per minute. One way to endotracheal tube size, position, and cuff inflation pressure to achieve this rate with a ventilating bag is to use the( Class lla; LOE 230, 329.3 ). Keep cuff inflation pressure <20 mnemonic"squeeze-release-release at a normal speaking cm H,O32 Endotracheal Tube Size Two-Person Bag-Mask Ventilation The internal diameter of the appropriate endotracheal tube for A 2-person technique may be more effective than ventilation a child will roughly equal the size of that childs little finger, by a single rescuer if the patient has significant airway but this estimation may be difficult and unreliable. 33,34 S obstruction, poor lung compliance, or difficulty in creating eral formulas such as the ones below allow estimation of tight mask-to-face seal. 16,17 One rescuer uses both hands to proper endotracheal tube size(ID, internal diameter)for maintain an open airway with a jaw thrust and a tight children I to 10 years of age, based on the child's age

Oxygen There are no studies comparing various concentrations of oxygen during resuscitation beyond the perinatal period. Use 100% oxygen during resuscitation (Class Indeterminate). Monitor the patient’s oxygen level. When the patient is stable, wean the supplementary oxygen if the oxygen saturation is maintained. Pulse Oximetry If the patient has a perfusing rhythm, monitor oxygen saturation continuously with a pulse oximeter because clinical recognition of hypoxemia is not reliable.7 Pulse oximetry, however, may be unreliable in a patient with poor peripheral perfusion. Bag-Mask Ventilation Bag-mask ventilation can be as effective as ventilation through an endotracheal tube for short periods and may be safer.8 –11 In the prehospital setting ventilate and oxygenate infants and children with a bag-mask device, especially if transport time is short (Class IIa; LOE 18; 310; 49,11). Bagmask ventilation requires training and periodic retraining on how to select a correct mask size, open the airway, make a tight seal between mask and face, ventilate, and assess effectiveness of ventilation (see Part 11: “Pediatric Basic Life Support”). Precautions Victims of cardiac arrest are frequently overventilated during resuscitation.12–14 Excessive ventilation increases intrathoracic pressure and impedes venous return, reducing cardiac output, cerebral blood flow, and coronary perfusion.13 Excessive ventilation also causes air trapping and barotrauma in patients with small-airway obstruction and increases the risk of stomach inflation, regurgitation, and aspiration. Minute ventilation is determined by the tidal volume and ventilation rate. Use only the force and tidal volume needed to make the chest rise visibly. During CPR for the patient with no advanced airway (eg, endotracheal tube, esophagealtracheal combitube [Combitube], LMA) in place, ventilation rate is determined by the compression-ventilation ratio. Pause after 30 compressions (1 rescuer) or after 15 compressions (2 rescuers) to give 2 ventilations with mouth-to-mouth, mouthto-mask, or bag-mask techniques. Give each breath over 1 second. If an advanced airway is in place during CPR (eg, endotracheal tube, Combitube, LMA), ventilate at a rate of 8 to 10 times per minute without pausing chest compressions. In the victim with a perfusing rhythm but absent or inadequate respiratory effort, give 12 to 20 breaths per minute. One way to achieve this rate with a ventilating bag is to use the mnemonic “squeeze-release-release” at a normal speaking rate.8,15 Two-Person Bag-Mask Ventilation A 2-person technique may be more effective than ventilation by a single rescuer if the patient has significant airway obstruction, poor lung compliance, or difficulty in creating a tight mask-to-face seal.16,17 One rescuer uses both hands to maintain an open airway with a jaw thrust and a tight mask-to-face seal while the other compresses the ventilation bag. Both rescuers should observe the victim’s chest to ensure chest rise. Gastric Inflation Gastric inflation may interfere with effective ventilation18 and cause regurgitation. You can minimize gastric inflation by doing the following: ● Avoid excessive peak inspiratory pressures (eg, by ventilating slowly and watching chest rise).8 To avoid use of excessive volume, deliver only the volume needed to produce visible chest rise. ● Apply cricoid pressure. You should do so only in an unresponsive victim. This technique may require an additional (third) rescuer if the cricoid pressure cannot be applied by the rescuer who is securing the bag to the face.19 –21 Avoid excessive pressure so as not to obstruct the trachea.22 ● If you intubate the patient, pass a nasogastric or orogastric tube after you intubate because a gastric tube interferes with the gastroesophageal sphincter, allowing possible regurgitation. Ventilation Through an Endotracheal Tube Endotracheal intubation in infants and children requires special training because the pediatric airway anatomy differs from adult airway anatomy. Success and a low complication rate are related to the length of training, supervised experience in the operating room and in the field,23,24 adequate ongoing experience,25 and the use of rapid sequence intubation (RSI).23,26,27 Rapid Sequence Intubation To facilitate emergency intubation and reduce the incidence of complications, skilled, experienced providers may use sedatives, neuromuscular blocking agents, and other medications to rapidly sedate and paralyze the victim.28 Use RSI only if you are trained and have experience using these medications and are proficient in the evaluation and management of the pediatric airway. If you use RSI you must have a secondary plan to manage the airway in the event that you cannot achieve intubation. Cuffed Versus Uncuffed Tubes In the in-hospital setting a cuffed endotracheal tube is as safe as an uncuffed tube for infants beyond the newborn period and in children.29 –31 In certain circumstances (eg, poor lung compliance, high airway resistance, or a large glottic air leak) a cuffed tube may be preferable provided that attention is paid to endotracheal tube size, position, and cuff inflation pressure (Class IIa; LOE 230; 329,31). Keep cuff inflation pressure 20 cm H2O.32 Endotracheal Tube Size The internal diameter of the appropriate endotracheal tube for a child will roughly equal the size of that child’s little finger, but this estimation may be difficult and unreliable.33,34 Several formulas such as the ones below allow estimation of proper endotracheal tube size (ID, internal diameter) for children 1 to 10 years of age, based on the child’s age: IV-168 Circulation December 13, 2005

Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support IV-169 Uncuffed endotracheal tube size(mm ID) If an intubated patients condition deteriorates, consider the (age in years/4)+ 4 llowing possibilities ( dOpe) In general, during preparation for intubation using the Displacement of the tube from the trachea above formula, providers should have the estimated tube size Obstruction of the tube available, as well as uncuffed endotracheal tubes that have internal diameters that are 0.5 mm smaller and 0.5 mm larger Equipment failure than the size estimated ready at the bedside for use Exhaled or End-Tidal CO2 Monitoring The formula for estimation of a cuffed endotracheal tube In infants and children with a perfusing rhythm, use a follows 30. colorimetric detector or capnography to detect exhaled COz Cuffed endotracheal tube size(mm ID) confirm endotracheal tube position in (age in years/)+ 3 in-hospital settings( Class Ila; LOE 54)and during intrahos- pital and interhospital transport(Class Ilb; LOE 545). A colo Endotracheal tube size, however, is more reliably based on change or the presence of a capnography waveform confirms a childs body length. Length-based resuscitation tapes are tube position in the trachea but does not rule out right mair helpful for children up to approximately 35 kg. 35 bronchus intubation During cardiac arrest, if exhaled cO not detected, confirm tube position with direct laryngoscopy verification of Endotracheal Tube Placement (Class IIa: LOE 546-49: 650)because the absence of CO, may There is a high risk that an endotracheal tube will be be a reflection of low pulmonary blood flow. misplaced (ie, placed in the esophagus or in the pharynx You may also detect a low end-tidal CO, in the follower above the vocal chords), displaced, or become obstructed, 8.356 circumstances especially when the patient is moved. 37 No single confirma- tion technique, including clinical signs or the presence If the detector is contaminated with gastric contents or water vapor in the tube, 39 is completely reliable, so providers acidic drugs(eg, endotracheally administered epinephrine), must use both clinical assessment and confirmatory devices you may see a constant color rather than breath-to-breath to verify proper tube placement immediately after intubation, color chan during transport, and when the patient is moved (ie, from An intravenous (Iv) bolus of epinephrine may transiently reduce pulmonary blood flow and exhaled CO, below the Immediately after intubation and again after securing the limits of detection I tube, confirm correct tube position with the following tech- Severe airway obstruction (eg, status asthmaticus)and iques while you provide positive-pressure ventilation with a pulmonary edema may impair CO, elimination. 9.52-54 Look for bilateral chest movement and listen for equa The self-inflating bulb(esophageal detector device)may be breath sounds over both lung fields, especially over the dren weighing >20 kg with a perfusing rhythm( Class lb axillae Listen for gastric insufflation sounds over the sto LOE 255.56). There is insufficient data to make a recommen- (they should not be present if the tube is in the trachea),38 dation for or against its use in children during cardiac arrest Use a device to evaluate placement. Check for exhaled Co,( Class Indeterminate) (see below) if there is a perfusing rhythm. If the child has Transtracheal Catheter Ventilation a perfusing rhythm and is >20 kg, you may use an Transtracheal catheter ventilation may be considered for esophageal detector device to check for evidence of esoph- support of oxygenation in the patient with severe airway ageal placement(see below ) obstruction if you cannot provide oxygen or ventilation any Check oxygen saturation with a pulse oximeter. Following other way. Try transtracheal ventilation only if you are nation he oxyhemoglobin saturation detect properly trained and have appropriate equipment. 57 by pulse oximetry may not demonstrate a fall indicative of incorrect endotracheal tube position(ie, tube misplacement Suction Devices displacement) for A suction device with an adjustable suction regulator should If you are still uncertain, perform direct laryngoscopy and be available. Use a maximum suction force of 80to look to see if the tube goes between the cords 120 mm Hg for suctioning the airway via an endotracheal In hospital settings perform a chest x-ray to verify that the tube. 58 You will need higher suction pressures and large bore tube is not in the right main bronchus and to identify a high noncollapsible suction tubing as well as ser aryngeal tube position at risk of easy displacement. tips to suction the mouth and pharynx. After intubation secure the tube. There is insufficient Circulation evidence to recommend any one method(Class Indetermi- scular life support techniques are useless nate). After you secure the tube, maintain the patient's head withou in a neutral position; neck flexion pushes the tube farther into chest 一 circulation, which is supported by good during cardiac arrest. Good chest com- the airway, and extension pulls the tube out of the airway 42.43 pressions require an adequate compression rate(100 com-

Uncuffed endotracheal tube size (mm ID) (age in years/4) 4 In general, during preparation for intubation using the above formula, providers should have the estimated tube size available, as well as uncuffed endotracheal tubes that have internal diameters that are 0.5 mm smaller and 0.5 mm larger than the size estimated ready at the bedside for use. The formula for estimation of a cuffed endotracheal tube size is as follows30: Cuffed endotracheal tube size (mm ID) (age in years/4) 3 Endotracheal tube size, however, is more reliably based on a child’s body length. Length-based resuscitation tapes are helpful for children up to approximately 35 kg.35 Verification of Endotracheal Tube Placement There is a high risk that an endotracheal tube will be misplaced (ie, placed in the esophagus or in the pharynx above the vocal chords), displaced, or become obstructed,8,36 especially when the patient is moved.37 No single confirmation technique, including clinical signs38 or the presence of water vapor in the tube,39 is completely reliable, so providers must use both clinical assessment and confirmatory devices to verify proper tube placement immediately after intubation, during transport, and when the patient is moved (ie, from gurney to bed). Immediately after intubation and again after securing the tube, confirm correct tube position with the following techniques while you provide positive-pressure ventilation with a bag: ● Look for bilateral chest movement and listen for equal breath sounds over both lung fields, especially over the axillae. ● Listen for gastric insufflation sounds over the stomach (they should not be present if the tube is in the trachea).38 ● Use a device to evaluate placement. Check for exhaled CO2 (see below) if there is a perfusing rhythm. If the child has a perfusing rhythm and is 20 kg, you may use an esophageal detector device to check for evidence of esophageal placement (see below). ● Check oxygen saturation with a pulse oximeter. Following hyperoxygenation, the oxyhemoglobin saturation detected by pulse oximetry may not demonstrate a fall indicative of incorrect endotracheal tube position (ie, tube misplacement or displacement) for as long as 3 minutes.40,41 ● If you are still uncertain, perform direct laryngoscopy and look to see if the tube goes between the cords. ● In hospital settings perform a chest x-ray to verify that the tube is not in the right main bronchus and to identify a high tube position at risk of easy displacement. After intubation secure the tube. There is insufficient evidence to recommend any one method (Class Indeterminate). After you secure the tube, maintain the patient’s head in a neutral position; neck flexion pushes the tube farther into the airway, and extension pulls the tube out of the airway.42,43 If an intubated patient’s condition deteriorates, consider the following possibilities (DOPE): ● Displacement of the tube from the trachea ● Obstruction of the tube ● Pneumothorax ● Equipment failure Exhaled or End-Tidal CO2 Monitoring In infants and children with a perfusing rhythm, use a colorimetric detector or capnography to detect exhaled CO2 to confirm endotracheal tube position in the prehospital and in-hospital settings (Class IIa; LOE 544) and during intrahospital and interhospital transport (Class IIb; LOE 545). A color change or the presence of a capnography waveform confirms tube position in the trachea but does not rule out right main bronchus intubation. During cardiac arrest, if exhaled CO2 is not detected, confirm tube position with direct laryngoscopy (Class IIa; LOE 546 – 49; 650) because the absence of CO2 may be a reflection of low pulmonary blood flow. You may also detect a low end-tidal CO2 in the following circumstances: ● If the detector is contaminated with gastric contents or acidic drugs (eg, endotracheally administered epinephrine), you may see a constant color rather than breath-to-breath color change. ● An intravenous (IV) bolus of epinephrine may transiently reduce pulmonary blood flow and exhaled CO2 below the limits of detection.51 ● Severe airway obstruction (eg, status asthmaticus) and pulmonary edema may impair CO2 elimination.49,52–54 Esophageal Detector Devices The self-inflating bulb (esophageal detector device) may be considered to confirm endotracheal tube placement in children weighing 20 kg with a perfusing rhythm (Class IIb; LOE 255,56). There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for or against its use in children during cardiac arrest (Class Indeterminate). Transtracheal Catheter Ventilation Transtracheal catheter ventilation may be considered for support of oxygenation in the patient with severe airway obstruction if you cannot provide oxygen or ventilation any other way. Try transtracheal ventilation only if you are properly trained and have appropriate equipment.57 Suction Devices A suction device with an adjustable suction regulator should be available. Use a maximum suction force of 80 to 120 mm Hg for suctioning the airway via an endotracheal tube.58 You will need higher suction pressures and large-bore noncollapsible suction tubing as well as semirigid pharyngeal tips to suction the mouth and pharynx. Circulation Advanced cardiovascular life support techniques are useless without effective circulation, which is supported by good chest compressions during cardiac arrest. Good chest compressions require an adequate compression rate (100 comPart 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support IV-169

IV- 70 Circulation December 13. 2005 pressions per minute), an adequate compression depth(about comparable to venous administration. s You can also obtain one third to one half of the anterior-posterior diameter), full blood specimens for type and crossmatch and for chemical recoil of the chest after each compression, and minimal and blood gas analysis even during cardiac arrest, 9 but interruptions in compressions. Unfortunately, good compres acid-base analysis is inaccurate after sodium bicarbonate sions are not always performed for many reasons, 14 including administration via the IO cannula. 70 Use manual pressure or rescuer fatigue and long or frequent interruptions to secure an infusion pump to administer viscous drugs or rapid fluid he airway, check the heart rhythm, and move the boluses. 71,72 and follow each medication with a saline flush to promote entry into the central circulation Backboard a firm surface that extends from the shoulders to the waist and across the full width of the bed provides optimal support central intravenous line(Iv) provides more secure long for effective chest compressions. In ambulances and mobile term access, but central drug administration does not achieve life support units, use a spine board higher drug levels or a substantially more rapid response than peripheral administration. 73 CPR Techniques and Adjuncts There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for or Endotracheal Drug Administration against the use of mechanical devices to compress the Any vascular access, IO or IV, is preferable, but if you cannot sternum, active compression-decompression CPR, interposed establish vascular access, you can give lipid-soluble drugs abdominal compression CPR, pneumatic antishock garment such as lidocaine, epinephrine, atropine, and naloxone during resuscitation from cardiac arrest, and open-chest direct (LEAN)74.75 via the endotracheal tube, 76 although optima heart compression(Class Indeterminate). For further infor- endotracheal doses are unknown (Table I). Flush with nation see Part 6: CPR Techniques and Devices minimum of 5 mL normal saline followed by 5 assisted manual ventilations. 77 If CPR is in progress, stop chest Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation compressions briefly during administration of medications. Consider extracorporeal CPR for in-hospital cardiac arrest Although naloxone and vasopressin may be given by the refractory to initial resuscitation attempts if the condition endotracheal route, there are no human studies to support leading to cardiac arrest is reversible or amenable to heart pecific dose. Non-lipid-soluble drugs(eg, sodium bicarbon transplantation, if excellent conventional CPR has been ate and calcium) may injure the airway and should not be performed after no more than several minutes of no-flow administered via the endotracheal route cardiac arrest(arrest time without CPR), and if the institution Administration of resuscitation drugs into the trachea is able to rapidly perform extracorporeal membrane oxygen- esults in lower blood concentrations than the same dose ation(Class Ib; LOE 56 ong-term survival is possible given intravascularly. Furthermore, recent animal studies even after >50 minutes of CPR in selected patients. 6I,62 suggest that the lower epinephrine concentrations achieved when the drug is delivered by the endotracheal route may Cardiovascular Monitoring produce transient B-adrenergic effects. These effects can be Attach electrocardiographic(ECG)monitoring leads or defi- detrimental, causing hypotension, lower coronary artery per- brillator pads as soon as possible and monitor blood pressure. fusion pressure and flow, and reduced potential for return of If the patient has an indwelling arterial catheter, use the spontaneous circulation. Thus, although endotracheal admin waveform to guide your technique in compressing the chest. istration of some resuscitation drugs is possible, IV or IO A minor adjustment of your hand position or depth of drug administration is preferred because it will provide a ompression can significantly improve the waveform. more predictable drug delivery and pharmacologic effect. Vascular access Emergency Fluids and Medications Vascular access is essential for administering medications Estimating Weight and drawing blood samples. Venous access can be challen In the out-of-hospital setting a child's weight is often un- ing in infants and children during an emergency, whereas known, and even experienced personnel may not be able to intraosseous (O)access can be easily achieved. Limit the estimate it accurately. 78 Tapes with precalculated doses time you attempt venous access, 63 and if you cannot achieve printed at various patient lengths are helpful and have been reliable access quickly, establish IO access. In cardiac arrest clinically validated. 35. 78. 79 Hospitalized patients should have immediate 1O access is recommended if no other IV access is weights and precalculated emergency drug doses recorded Intraosseous Access Fluids 1O access is a rapid, safe, and effective route for the Use an isotonic crystalloid solution (eg, lactated Ringer administration of medications and fluids, 64,65 and it may be solution or normal saline)s0. 81 to treat shock; there is no used for obtaining an initial blood sample during resuscitation benefit in using colloid(eg, albumin) during initial resusci- (Class Ila: LOE 365.66). You can safely administer epineph- tation. 82 Use bolus therapy with a glucose-containing solution rine, adenosine, fluids, blood products, 64 66 and catechol- to only treat documented hypoglycemia( Class llb: LOE 283: amines.67 Onset of action and drug levels achieved are 684). There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for

pressions per minute), an adequate compression depth (about one third to one half of the anterior-posterior diameter), full recoil of the chest after each compression, and minimal interruptions in compressions. Unfortunately, good compressions are not always performed for many reasons,14 including rescuer fatigue and long or frequent interruptions to secure the airway, check the heart rhythm, and move the patient. Backboard A firm surface that extends from the shoulders to the waist and across the full width of the bed provides optimal support for effective chest compressions. In ambulances and mobile life support units, use a spine board.59,60 CPR Techniques and Adjuncts There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for or against the use of mechanical devices to compress the sternum, active compression-decompression CPR, interposed abdominal compression CPR, pneumatic antishock garment during resuscitation from cardiac arrest, and open-chest direct heart compression (Class Indeterminate). For further information see Part 6: “CPR Techniques and Devices.” Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Consider extracorporeal CPR for in-hospital cardiac arrest refractory to initial resuscitation attempts if the condition leading to cardiac arrest is reversible or amenable to heart transplantation, if excellent conventional CPR has been performed after no more than several minutes of no-flow cardiac arrest (arrest time without CPR), and if the institution is able to rapidly perform extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (Class IIb; LOE 561,62). Long-term survival is possible even after 50 minutes of CPR in selected patients.61,62 Cardiovascular Monitoring Attach electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring leads or defibrillator pads as soon as possible and monitor blood pressure. If the patient has an indwelling arterial catheter, use the waveform to guide your technique in compressing the chest. A minor adjustment of your hand position or depth of compression can significantly improve the waveform. Vascular Access Vascular access is essential for administering medications and drawing blood samples. Venous access can be challenging in infants and children during an emergency, whereas intraosseous (IO) access can be easily achieved. Limit the time you attempt venous access,63 and if you cannot achieve reliable access quickly, establish IO access. In cardiac arrest immediate IO access is recommended if no other IV access is already in place. Intraosseous Access IO access is a rapid, safe, and effective route for the administration of medications and fluids,64,65 and it may be used for obtaining an initial blood sample during resuscitation (Class IIa; LOE 365,66). You can safely administer epinephrine, adenosine, fluids, blood products,64,66 and catecholamines.67 Onset of action and drug levels achieved are comparable to venous administration.68 You can also obtain blood specimens for type and crossmatch and for chemical and blood gas analysis even during cardiac arrest,69 but acid-base analysis is inaccurate after sodium bicarbonate administration via the IO cannula.70 Use manual pressure or an infusion pump to administer viscous drugs or rapid fluid boluses,71,72 and follow each medication with a saline flush to promote entry into the central circulation. Venous Access A central intravenous line (IV) provides more secure longterm access, but central drug administration does not achieve higher drug levels or a substantially more rapid response than peripheral administration.73 Endotracheal Drug Administration Any vascular access, IO or IV, is preferable, but if you cannot establish vascular access, you can give lipid-soluble drugs such as lidocaine, epinephrine, atropine, and naloxone (“LEAN”)74,75 via the endotracheal tube,76 although optimal endotracheal doses are unknown (Table 1). Flush with a minimum of 5 mL normal saline followed by 5 assisted manual ventilations.77 If CPR is in progress, stop chest compressions briefly during administration of medications. Although naloxone and vasopressin may be given by the endotracheal route, there are no human studies to support a specific dose. Non–lipid-soluble drugs (eg, sodium bicarbonate and calcium) may injure the airway and should not be administered via the endotracheal route. Administration of resuscitation drugs into the trachea results in lower blood concentrations than the same dose given intravascularly. Furthermore, recent animal studies suggest that the lower epinephrine concentrations achieved when the drug is delivered by the endotracheal route may produce transient -adrenergic effects. These effects can be detrimental, causing hypotension, lower coronary artery perfusion pressure and flow, and reduced potential for return of spontaneous circulation. Thus, although endotracheal administration of some resuscitation drugs is possible, IV or IO drug administration is preferred because it will provide a more predictable drug delivery and pharmacologic effect. Emergency Fluids and Medications Estimating Weight In the out-of-hospital setting a child’s weight is often unknown, and even experienced personnel may not be able to estimate it accurately.78 Tapes with precalculated doses printed at various patient lengths are helpful and have been clinically validated.35,78,79 Hospitalized patients should have weights and precalculated emergency drug doses recorded and readily available. Fluids Use an isotonic crystalloid solution (eg, lactated Ringer’s solution or normal saline)80,81 to treat shock; there is no benefit in using colloid (eg, albumin) during initial resuscitation.82 Use bolus therapy with a glucose-containing solution to only treat documented hypoglycemia (Class IIb; LOE 283; 684). There is insufficient data to make a recommendation for IV-170 Circulation December 13, 2005

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